In History Hit’s new documentary, Scotland’s Roman Hoard: The Traprain Treasure, Tristan Hughes is granted exclusive access to the National Museum of Scotland to examine these incredible artefacts up close. Guided by leading expert Dr Fraser Hunter, Principal Curator of The National Museum of Scotland, Tristan delves into the hoard’s mysterious origins, uncovering what this treasure reveals about trade and power games at the far edges of the Roman Empire, and the true birth of medieval Scotland.

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The treasure of the ‘Barbarians’

The discovery of the Traprain Treasure is unique because it was found far outside the formal boundaries of the Roman Empire, and buried at a time when Roman Britain had receded some considerable distance to the south and was collapsing (around 450 AD). The Romans had never managed to hold onto land beyond Hadrian’s Wall long-term; further north above modern-day Edinburgh tribal groups would ultimately unite and become the Picts, who fiercely resisted Roman control.

Caught up between these powers were the Votadini, a formidable people who lived in the buffer state beyond Hadrian’s Wall. Traprain Law, east of modern-day Edinburgh, rises out of the East Lothian plain and was a major power centre for them. While the Romans called them ‘Barbarians,’ the Votadini used their strategic position to their advantage, maintaining a rewarding alliance with Rome without succumbing to its rule.

Dr Fraser Hunter describes the hoard as “one of the most remarkable finds of late-Roman silver from anywhere in the empire or beyond,” emphasising that this is a story about the powerful communities beyond the frontier, not the Romans within it.

Tristan Hughes (left) with Dr Fraser Hunter (right), Principal Curator at The National Museum of Scotland. In front of them lies some of the objects from the Traprain Treasure.

The discovery

Excavations of the site had begun in 1914, led by Alexander Curle, the former director of the Royal Scottish Museum in Edinburgh. On 12 May 1919, workmen were clearing one of the levels with a pick-axe when foreman George Pringle discovered a silver vessel. 

The treasure did not emerge pristine. It was largely found as “hack silver” – flattened, broken, and fragmented pieces. Early restorers pieced them back together, but the fragments hold a critical secret. The silver is incredibly pure (93-95%), giving it immense value, not just as art, but as a raw material. As Tristan and Fraser reveal, the meticulous way the silver was chopped into precise, weight-standardised fragments suggests this wasn’t the haphazard destruction of “barbarians,” but a careful act performed perhaps within the Roman world during a time of economic crisis.

A world in transition: Paganism and Christianity

The objects themselves speak to a world in transition, showcasing the elite culture and rising anxieties of the late Roman Empire. In the documentary, Tristan examines a beautifully preserved bowl, once a high-status washbasin for elite women, adorned with magnificent pagan imagery including a sea nereid nymph riding a sea panther. Other fragments depict the mythological hero Hercules, reflecting the classical culture of elite Roman dining.

Yet, the hoard also contains the earliest Christian item found in Scotland: a gilded silver vessel featuring detailed scenes from both the Old and New Testaments. This impressive piece of early Christian iconography, complete with Adam and Eve, and the Virgin Mary receiving the Three Wise Men, powerfully illustrates how a new religion was taking hold. This mix of pagan and Christian items in a single hoard reflects the contested, turbulent world of late antiquity.

Depiction of the Virgin Mary receiving the Three Wise Men on silver vessel from the Traprain Treasure.

Image Credit: History Hit / National Museum of Scotland

Mercenaries, money, and power games

How did so much Roman silver – over 250 objects weighing 23kg – end up buried on a Scottish hill?

The treasures came north over a long period, likely spanning a century or more, linking Traprain to the military and political turmoil of the collapsing Empire. Fraser explains that the Votadini were Rome’s eyes and ears in the North, and the silver often came north as mercenary pay or diplomatic gifts. As he puts it, “a chunk of this material is likely to be effectively their pay packets.”

In the documentary, Tristan examines silver coins from the hoard that have been deliberately clipped around the edges – according to Fraser this was a particularly British habit after the official flow of coinage ceased around 410 AD. This act of clipping silver to pay people by weight offers a clear indication of the hoard’s dating (featuring Emperors Valens and Theodosius, and Honorius) and its use in a post-Roman economy.

Far from being ‘chopped up by Barbarians’, the precision cuts and adhering to Roman weight standards suggest the silver fragments were meticulously prepared, possibly even within the Roman world during a time of economic crisis, where the material’s raw value for transport or trade was prioritised over its artistic form.

Pieces of cut silver from the Traprain Treasure

Image Credit: History Hit / National Museum of Scotland

Brought in from the Roman world as diplomatic gifts, subsidies, and mercenary payments, silver quickly became a powerful symbol of status and influence in local society. Had it not been frozen in time by burial, it would have been recycled and refashioned into magnificent brooches, chains, and rings – new status items essential for asserting influence in local society. Fraser shows Tristan a large silver military buckle decorated with the Christian Alpha and Omega symbols, indicating that some of these “swords for hire” were Christians themselves.

The Traprain Treasure proves that while the Romans failed to conquer this part of Britain, they left a profound and lasting impact. The raw material of Rome’s empire – frozen in time on a Scottish hill – became the foundation for the prestigious society and early medieval culture that would eventually lead to the birth of Scotland.

Join Tristan Hughes and Dr Fraser Hunter to uncover the true significance of the Traprain Treasure and witness the birth of a nation in Scotland’s Roman Hoard: The Traprain Treasure.

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In a new documentary, Enemies of Rome: In Search of the Picts, Tristan Hughes travels across Scotland to go beyond the myths and uncover the truth. He meets the experts, explores the latest discoveries, and investigates how these enigmatic people lived, thrived, and ultimately vanished.

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Beyond the Wall

The Roman Empire’s northern frontier was marked by Hadrian’s Wall, a towering fortification that the Romans believed was the very edge of civilisation. Beyond it, in the wild and untamed lands of what is now Scotland, lived the Picts – a name likely derived from the Latin Picti, or “painted people.”

While Roman sources dismissed them as “barbarians,” they were a people who resisted conquest, even pushing back against Rome’s most ambitious attempts to expand north. The Romans built the Antonine Wall 100 miles north of Hadrian’s Wall, but it was ultimately a failure. By the 3rd century, the Picts emerged free of Roman control, their formidable resistance a testament to their strength and organisation.

But with no written records of their own, we’ve long had a one-sided view of them. So who were they? The programme takes us to the heartland of Pictish territory, modern-day Aberdeenshire, to a newly excavated hill fort called Tap O’Noth. What archaeologists have found there is a “real revolution” in our understanding of Pictish society. The site was once a massive settlement with hundreds of house platforms, proving that these people were far more organised and lived on a scale previously thought impossible for the period.

Survival and creativity

With so few surviving written records, archaeology is our only real window into the Picts’ world. The discoveries reveal people who were not just surviving in a rugged landscape, but were also thriving. We see tools for agriculture, evidence of craftsmanship, and even objects that hint at a life of leisure, like gaming pieces influenced by the Roman Empire.

The Picts were masters of their environment, creating essential tools like the coracle – a small, woven willow-framed boat covered in oxhide – that allowed them to navigate their unforgiving world. But they also brought colour into their lives.

Tristan Hughes (left) is given a crash-course in Pictish daily life with Historical Leatherwork Specialist, Hamish Lamley (right), who makes Tristan dress the part, and teaches him how to build a coracle (‘currach’) – a small boat, typical of what was being used throughout this period.

Image Credit: History Hit

Contrary to the common myth of blue-painted warriors, new research suggests a different story. The name Picti may refer to body paint made from red hematite iron ore, a pigment found on Scottish beaches. 

As Tristan learns from Caroline Nicolay, an Experiential Archaeologist, the Roman historian Caesar’s texts were likely mistranslated, and the “blue” we associate with the Picts may have been a reference to the translucent colour of glass rather than the dye woad. This sheds a new light on how we should envision these formidable people charging into battle.

These discoveries are a powerful reminder that the real story of the Picts is far more complex than the Roman portrayal of them as savage warriors. Their daily lives weren’t just about fighting off Roman invasions; they had time for creativity, artistry, and a vibrant cultural life.

Tristan Hughes talks to Caroline Nicolay, an Experiential Archaeologist, about the vibrant pigments the Picts may have used, such as hematite, found on many Scottish beaches.

Image Credit: History Hit

Silver, symbols, and a shifting identity

The Picts also left behind some of the finest silver objects from anywhere in the early medieval world. Tristan heads to the National Museum of Scotland to meet Dr Martin Goldberg, Principal Curator, where he’s given special access to examine the Norrie’s Law hoard up-close, a massive collection of Late Roman and Pictish silver from the 6th century discovered in 1819 in Fife.

These treasures reveal a fascinating truth: the Picts didn’t just resist Rome; they traded with them, acquiring and repurposing precious Roman silver into distinctly their own works of art. These artefacts – including massive silver chains that were likely worn by powerful women or adolescents – were not just symbols of wealth, but a form of “proto-currency” and communication that showed what truly mattered to them.

Tristan Hughes at the National Museum of Scotland viewing items from the Norrie’s Law hoard, a massive 6th-century Pictish silver hoard discovered in 1819 in Fife, Scotland.

Image Credit: National Museum of Scotland / History Hit

Perhaps the Picts’ most enduring legacy is their enigmatic carved stones. Found across Scotland, these monuments are covered in striking, mysterious symbols that have puzzled historians for centuries. One particular hotspot is the village of Aberlemno in Angus, where Tristan views several carved Pictish stones and discusses their meaning with Historian and Heritage Stone-carver David McGovern.

While their exact meaning remains unknown, David suggests the symbols were likely so ingrained in Pictish culture that their meaning was widely understood. The fact that the symbols endured for so long and are found across a large territory indicates they were a powerful form of communication. This, combined with their frequent appearance in pairs, leads him to believe the carvings are “something to do with tribes, families, dynasties… alliances”, serving as a testament to the Picts’ sophisticated belief system and unique identity.

One of the Aberlemno Pictish Stones in Scotland

Image Credit: Fulcanelli / Shutterstock.com

The ultimate mystery, however, is what happened to them? As Tristan uncovers, Pictish identity didn’t disappear, but evolved. The arrival of Christianity saw their ancient traditions blend with a new faith, creating something entirely their own. But by the 10th century, as new powers rose, the Picts vanished from the historical record, being gradually absorbed into the emerging kingdom of Alba, the foundation of modern Scotland.

The great enigma of the Picts has ensured that the Roman, damning portrayal of them as barbaric has stuck for centuries. But now, thanks to archaeology, that myth is falling away, revealing a people who were fiercely independent, highly skilled, and profoundly human.

Join Tristan Hughes on a journey to find the real people behind the myths in Enemies of Rome: In Search of the Picts.

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It was one of ten similar fleets across the empire. It was employed like an army service corps because it reported to the procurator in Britain rather than the governor. The procurator was in charge of tax collection, and so the fleet was there to make the province of Britain pay into the imperial treasury.

This article is an edited transcript of Roman Navy in Britain: The Classis Britannica with Simon Elliott.

Epigraphic evidence of the Classis Britannica

The fleet had its origins in the Claudian invasion of Britain in AD 43 when 900 ships were constructed to carry Aulus Plautius’ huge invasion force of 40,000 legionaries and auxilia from northwestern Gaul. There’s a strong epigraphic record of the fleet; that is, references to the fleet within writing on funerary monuments. A lot of the relevant epigraphy is in Boulogne, which is where the Classis Britannica was headquartered.

Boulogne served as the headquarters of the fleet because, not only did the fleet have responsibility for the English Channel, the Atlantic approaches, the east and west coasts of England and the Irish Sea, but it also had responsibility for the northwestern continental coast of the Roman Empire, all the way up to the Rhine.

That reflects how the Romans viewed the English Channel and the North Sea in a different way to how we might see it today. For them, it wasn’t the barrier that we see in recent military history; it was actually a point of connectivity, and a motorway by which Roman Britain remained a fully functioning part of the Roman Empire.

The navy in archaeology

We know where a lot of the fleet’s fortified harbours were, thanks to the archaeological record, which provides a lot of detail. This record also includes a piece of graffiti on some waste lead from Roman Britain that depicts a Roman galley. It was clearly drawn by somebody who had actually seen a Roman galley for themselves and so, in that, we have an absolutely wonderful piece of first-hand evidence depicting a galley on a ship in the Classis Britannica.

The Classis Britannica also ran some of the province’s metal industries. This included the iron industry in the Weald, which the fleet ran through to the middle of the 3rd century and which made a lot of the iron that the military on the province’s northern borders needed to operate. The archaeological record provides a lot of detail for the Classis Britannica.

The fleet’s big iron working sites were monumental in scale, about factory size to us today. We know they were run by the fleet because all of the buildings have tiles stamped with the Classis Britannica insignia.

Written evidence about Britain’s Roman navy

There is also important evidence in the written record. The first time that the naval force was mentioned was in the Flavian period, in the context of a failure in the year 69. The Classis Britannica was recorded by the historian Tacitus as taking a British legion across to the Rhine to help fight Civilis and his revolting Batavians.

The Rembrandt painting The Conspiracy of Claudius Civilis depicts a Batavian oath to Gaius Julius Civilis.

The legionary commander, Fabius Priscus, then marched his legion against the Nervii and Tungri tribes who had proved so troublesome almost 130 years earlier to Julius Caesar during his Gallic campaigns. However, the legate appears to have left his fleet in a vulnerable situation with no guards.

This invasion force worth of ships, which had effectively carried an entire legion, was then left in the Rhine estuary overnight, unprotected. The local Germans burnt it to a cinder. As a result, the first reference to the Classis Britannica in the written record was made in ignominy. The fleet was rebuilt very quickly, however.

The navy in the 1st and 2nd centuries

By the mid-70s AD, the province of Britannia was effectively established along lines that remained recognisable for the rest of the Roman occupation, the northern border on the Solway Firth – Tyne line later to be fortified by Hadrian. The Classis Britannica played a major role in the ambitious attempts of the governor Gnaeus Julius Agricola to conquer Scotland.

The Classis Britannica spent much of the 2^nd century AD supporting the military presence on the northern border, coming back into focus again in 196 AD when the British Governor Clodius Albinus launched an unsuccessful usurpation attempt against the Emperor Septimius Severus.

However, the fleet was back in action again by the early 3^rd century AD when Severus attempted his own ‘shock and awe’ conquest of Scotland. By this time the Maeatae around the line of the now abandoned Antonine Wall, and Caledonians further north, had become so troublesome that the governor sent a desperate dispatch requesting new troops or the Emperor himself.  He got both.

Britain’s Roman navy and Septimus Severus

Severus crossed the English Channel in AD 208 with a huge Imperial entourage including with the Praetorian Guard, Imperial guard cavalry and crack units from the continental legions. This was again transported by the Classis Britannica which landed the troops in all of the ports down the east coast given the army’s size.

The last time the fleet was ever mentioned was in 249 in the context of the funerary stelae of Saturninus, a captain of the Classis Britannica. This captain was from North Africa, which shows how cosmopolitan the Roman Empire was.

There are also records of people from Syria and Iraq up around Hadrian’s Wall. In fact, there is epigraphy along the Wall which reveals that the Classis Britannica actually built parts of the structure and also helped to maintain it. Meanwhile, there is a reference towards the end of the Roman Empire in Britain of some Tigris boatman acting as bargemen on the Tyne.

What happened to the Classis Britannica?

As detailed earlier, we know the fleet disappears from the historical record in the middle of the 3^rd century AD, but the cause is a mystery.

A number of events in the 3^rd century are candidates. One is the scramble for Imperial control between the Senate and the military after the assassination of Alexander Severus in AD 235, the event which initiated the ‘Crisis of the 3^rd Century’.

Another was the usurping Gallic Empire founded by Postumus that lasted from AD 260 to AD 274. Finally, there is the tale of another usurper, Carausius and his North Sea Empire that lasted from AD 286 to AD 296.

Any could have presented a situation where the Classis Britannica found itself on the wrong side of usurpation, the fleet suffering dramatically as a result.

Here are five of the best of a very mixed bunch.

1. Augustus

Augustus of Prima Porta, 1st century (cropped)

Image Credit: Vatican Museums, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Gaius Octavius (63 BC – 14 AD) founded the Roman Empire in 27 BC. He was the great-nephew of Julius Caesar.

Augustus’ enormous personal power, won though bloody struggle, meant he had no rivals. The 200-year Pax Romana began.

Augustus conquered Egypt and Dalmatia and its northern neighbours. The Empire grew south and east in Africa; north and east into Germania and south-west in Spain. Buffer states and diplomacy kept the frontiers safe.

An overhauled tax system paid for his new standing army and Praetorian Guard. Couriers carried official news quickly along his roads. Rome was transformed with new buildings, a police force, fire brigade and proper local administrators. He was generous to the people, paying vast sums to citizens and veterans, for whom he bought land to retire on.

His last words in private were: “Have I played the part well? Then applaud as I exit.” His final public utterance, “Behold, I found Rome of clay, and leave her to you of marble,” was just as true.

2. Trajan 98 – 117 AD

Marcus Ulpius Trajanus (53 –117 AD) is one of consecutive Five Good Emperors, three of whom are listed here. He was the most successful military man in Roman history, expanding the Empire to its greatest extent.

Trajan added gold-rich Dacia (parts of Romania, Moldova, Bulgaria, Serbia, Hungary, and Ukraine) to the empire, subdued and conquered the Parthian Empire (in modern Iran), and marched through Armenia and Mesopotamia to extend Rome’s reach to the Persian Gulf.

At home he built well, employing the talented Apollodorus of Damascus as his architect. A column recorded his victory in Dacia, while a forum and market in his name improved the capital. Elsewhere spectacular bridges, roads and canals improved military communications.

He devalued the silver denarius to finance the spending of his enormous war booty on public works, providing food and subsidised education for the poor as well as great games.

3. Hadrian 117 – 138 AD

Head of Emperor Hadrian (cropped)

Image Credit: Djehouty, CC BY-SA 4.0 , via Wikimedia Commons

Publius Aelius Hadrianus (76 AD –138 AD) is now best known for the magnificent wall that marked the northern frontier of the Empire in Britain. He was well travelled and educated, promoting Greek philosophy.

Uniquely among Emperors Hadrian travelled to almost every part of his Empire, initiating great fortifications both in Britannia and on the Danube and Rhine frontiers.

His reign was largely peaceful, he withdrew from some of Trajan’s conquests, strengthening the Empire from within by commissioning great infrastructure projects and inspecting and drilling the army on his travels. When he did fight he could be brutal, wars in Judea killed 580,000 Jews.

A great lover of Greek culture, Hadrian built up Athens as a cultural capital and patronised the arts and architecture; he wrote poetry himself. Among many spectacular building projects, Hadrian oversaw the rebuilding of the Pantheon with its magnificent dome.

The historian Edward Gibbon wrote that Hadrian’s reign was the “happiest era of human history”.

4. Marcus Aurelius 161 – 180 AD

Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus (121 –180 AD) was the Philosopher Emperor and the last of the Five Good Emperors.

Marcus’ reign was marked by tolerance for free speech, even when it was critical of the Emperor himself. He was even able to rule alongside Lucius Verus for the first eight years of his reign. The less academic Lucius taking a lead in military matters.

Despite constant military and political troubles, Marcus’ competent administration reacted well to crises like the flooding of the Tiber in 162. He reformed the currency intelligently in response to changing economic circumstances and picked his advisors well. He was praised for his mastery of the law and his fairness.

The depraved behaviour of Roman emperors could fill several websites, but Marcus was moderate and forgiving in his personal life and as Emperor.

Marble bust of Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius, Musée Saint-Raymond, Toulouse, France

Image Credit: Musée Saint-Raymond, CC BY-SA 4.0 , via Wikimedia Commons

Militarily he conquered the resurgent Parthian Empire and won wars against Germanic tribes that were threatening the Empire’s eastern frontiers.

The historian of his reign, Cassius Dio, wrote that his death marked a descent “from a kingdom of gold to one of iron and rust.”

Marcus is still today considered an important writer on Stoic philosophy, which values duty to and respect for others and self-control. His 12 volume Meditations, probably written while campaigning and for his own use, was a bestseller in 2002.

5. Aurelian 270 – 275 AD

Lucius Domitius Aurelianus Augustus (214 – 175 AD) ruled for just a short time, but he restored the Empire’s lost provinces, helping to end the Crisis of the Third Century.

Aurelian was a commoner, earning his power by rising through the military. The Empire needed a good soldier, and Aurelian’s message of “concord with the soldiers” made his purposes clear.

First he threw barbarians from Italy and then Roman territory. He defeated the Goths in the Balkans and wisely decided to step back from defending Dacia.

Boosted by these victories he overthrew the Palmyrene Empire, which had grown from captured Roman provinces in North Africa and the Middle East, important sources of grain for Rome. Next were the Gauls in the west, completing a complete reunification of the Empire and earning Aurelian the title, “Restorer of the World.”

He didn’t just fight, bringing stability to religious and economic life, rebuilding public buildings, and tackling corruption.

Had he not been murdered by a conspiracy started by a secretary fearful of punishment for a minor lie, he might have left an even better legacy. As it was, Aurelian’s reign secured the future of Rome for another 200 years. The danger he faced is shown in the massive Aurelian Walls he built around Rome and which still stand in part today.

How did the Romans, building two millennia ago with nothing but human muscle and animal power, leave such a lasting legacy?

The Romans built on what they knew from the Ancient Greeks. The two styles are together called Classical Architecture and their principles are still used by modern architects.

From the 18th century, Neoclassical architects deliberately copied ancient buildings with regular, plain, symmetrical designs with lots of columns and arches, often using white plaster or stucco as a finish. Modern buildings built in this style are described as New Classical.

1. The arch and the vault

The Romans did not invent but did master both the arch and vault, bringing a new dimension to their buildings that the Greeks did not have.

Arches can carry much more weight than straight beams, allowing longer distances to be spanned without supporting columns. The Romans realised that arches didn’t have to be full semi-circles, allowing them to build their long bridges. Stacks of arches allowed them to build higher spans, best seen in some of their spectacular aqueducts.

Vaults take the arches strengths and apply them in three dimensions. Vaulted roofs were a spectacular innovation. The widest vaulted Roman roof was the 100 foot-wide roof over the throne room in Diocletian’s palace.

2. Domes

Interior of the Pantheon, Rome, c. 1734. Image credit: Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Image Credit: Samuel H. Kress Collection

Domes use similar principles of circular geometry to cover large areas with no internal support.

The oldest surviving dome in Rome was in the Emperor Nero’s Golden House, built around 64 AD. It was 13 metres in diameter.

Domes became an important and prestigious feature of public buildings, particularly baths. By the 2nd century, The Pantheon was completed under Emperor Hadrian, it is still the largest unsupported concrete dome in the world.

3. Concrete

As well as mastering and refining Ancient Greek geometrical learning, the Romans had their own wonder material. Concrete freed the Romans from building only with carved stone or wood.

Roman concrete was behind the Roman Architectural Revolution of the late Republic (around 1st century BC), the first time in history that buildings were built with regard to more than the simple practicalities of enclosing space and supporting a roof over it. Buildings could become beautiful in structure as well as decoration.

The Roman material is very similar to the Portland cement that we use today. A dry aggregate (perhaps rubble) was mixed with a mortar that would take in water and harden. The Romans perfected a range of concretes for different purposes, even building under water.

4. Domestic architecture

Hadrian’s Villa. Image credit: Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Image Credit: Damian Byrne / Shutterstock.com

Most of Rome’s citizens lived in simple structures, even blocks of flats. The rich though enjoyed villas, which were country estates in which to escape the heat and crowds of a Roman summer.

Cicero (106 – 43 BC), the great politician and philosopher, owned seven. The Emperor Hadrian’s villa at Tivoli consisted of more than 30 buildings with gardens, baths, a theatre, temples and libraries. Hadrian even had a complete small home on an indoor island with drawbridges that could be pulled up. Tunnels allowed servants to move around without disturbing their masters.

Most villas had an atrium – an enclosed open space – and three separate areas for owners and slave accommodation and storage. Many had baths, plumbing and drains and hypocaust under-floor central heating. Mosaics decorated floors and murals walls.

5. Public buildings

Great public structures were built to provide entertainment, to instil civic pride, to worship in and to show the power and generosity of the rich and powerful. Rome was full of them, but wherever the Empire spread, so did magnificent public buildings.

Julius Caesar was a particularly flamboyant public builder, and he attempted to make Rome surpass Alexandria as the Mediterranean’s greatest city, adding major public works such as the Forum Julium and the Saepta Julia.

6. The Colosseum

The Colosseum at dusk. Image credit: Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Image Credit: Shutterstock.com

Still one of the iconic sights of Rome today, the Colosseum was a massive stadium that could house between 50,000 and 80,000 spectators. It was ordered built by Emperor Vespasian around 70 – 72 AD, on the site of Nero’s personal palace.

Like many Roman buildings, it was built with the spoils of war and to celebrate victory, this time in the Great Jewish Revolt. It is in four levels, and was completed in 80 AD after Vespasian’s death.

It was the model for similar celebratory amphitheatre throughout the Empire.

7. Aqueducts

Romans were able to live in large cities because they knew how to transport water for drinking, public baths and sewerage systems.

The first aqueduct, the Aqua Appia, was built in 312 BC in Rome. It was 16.4 km long and supplied 75,537 cubic metres of water a day, flowing down a total 10-metre drop.

The tallest aqueduct still standing is the Pont du Gard bridge in France. Part of a 50km water delivery system, the bridge itself is 48.8 m high with a 1 in 3,000 downward gradient, an extraordinary achievement with ancient technology. It is estimated the system carried 200,000 m3 a day to the city of Nimes.

8. Triumphal arches

Arch of Constantine in Rome, Italy. 2008. Image credit: Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons

The Romans celebrated their military triumphs and other achievements by building gigantic arches over their roads.

The Roman’s mastery of the arch may have given this simple shape a special significance to them. Early examples were being built by 196 BC when Lucius Steritinus put up two to celebrate Spanish victories.

After Augustus limited such displays to emperors only, the men at the top were in an ongoing competition to build the most magnificent. They spread throughout the Empire, with 36 in Rome alone by the fourth century.

The largest surviving arch is the Arch of Constantine, 21 m high in total with one arch of 11.5 m.

As a lasting testament to the sprawl and ambition of Roman imperialism, Hadrian’s Wall takes some beating. Here are 10 facts about it.

1. The wall is named after Emperor Hadrian, who ordered its construction

Emperor Hadrian ascended to the throne in 117 AD, a time when the north-west frontier of the Roman Empire was experiencing unrest, according to some historians. It’s likely that Hadrian conceived of the wall as a response to such troubles; the structure acted as an imposing statement of the empire’s power and a deterrent to rebellious incursions from the north.

2. It took around 15,000 men about six years to build

Work commenced on the wall in 122 AD and was completed around six years later. It goes without saying that a construction project of such nation-spanning proportions required significant manpower. Three legions – comprised of around 5,000 infantrymen each – were employed to take care of the major construction work.

Head of Emperor Hadrian. Image credit: Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Image Credit: Djehouty, CC BY-SA 4.0 , via Wikimedia Commons

3. It marked the northern frontier of the Roman Empire

At the peak of its powers, the Roman Empire stretched from northern Britain to the deserts of Arabia – some 5,000 kilometres. Hadrian’s Wall represented the northern frontier of the empire, marking out a section of its limites (a border, typically incorporating military defences), which can still be traced in the remains of walls and fortifications.

Limes Germanicus marked the empire’s Germanic frontier, Limes Arabicus the limits of the empire’s Arabian Province, and Fossatum Africae (African ditch) the southern frontier, which stretched for at least 750km across northern Africa.

4. It was 73 miles long

The wall stretched from Wallsend and the banks of the River Tyne near the North Sea to the Solway Firth in the Irish Sea, essentially spanning the entire breadth of Britain. It measured 80 Roman miles (mille passum), each of which was the equivalent of 1,000 paces.

5. It doesn’t mark the border between England and Scotland, and never has

It’s a popular misconception that Hadrian’s Wall marks the border between England and Scotland. In fact, the wall predates both kingdoms, while substantial sections of modern-day Northumberland and Cumbria – both of which are located south of the border – are bisected by it.

6. The wall was garrisoned with soldiers from across the Roman Empire

These auxiliary soldiers were drawn from as far afield as Syria.

7. Only 10% of the original wall is now visible

Unsurprisingly, much of the wall has failed to survive the last 2,000 years. In fact, it’s estimated that – for various reasons – around 90 per cent of it is no longer visible.

For centuries after the fall of the Roman Empire, the wall was used as a quarry and mined for stone to build castles and churches. It wasn’t until the 19th century that archaeologists and historians took interest in the remains and efforts were made to protect it from further damage.

8. Forts and milecastles were positioned along the length of the wall

Hadrian’s Wall was far more than just a wall. Every Roman mile was marked by a milecastle, a minor fort that housed a small garrison of around 20 auxiliary soldiers. These guarded outposts enabled the length of the frontier to be monitored and the cross-border passage of people and livestock to be controlled, and probably taxed.

Forts were more substantial military bases, thought to have hosted an auxiliary unit of around 500 men. The wall’s most notable and best-preserved fort remains are the sites of Chesters and Housesteads in modern-day Northumberland.

Temple of Mithras near Hadrian’s Wall in Carrawburgh. Image credit: Alexander P Bell / Shutterstock.com

9. There’s still much to learn about Hadrian’s Wall

Historians are convinced that important archaeological discoveries are yet to be uncovered in the vicinity of Hadrian’s Wall. The recent discovery of extensive civilian settlements, seemingly built around the wall’s forts, hint at its ongoing archaeological relevance.

10. George R. R. Martin was inspired by a visit to Hadrian’s Wall

Game of Thrones fans might be interested to learn that a visit to Hadrian’s Wall in the early 1980s provided the inspiration for George R. R. Martin’s fantasy novels. The author, whose books were adapted into the enormously successful television series of the same name, told Rolling Stone magazine:

“I was in England visiting a friend, and as we approached the border of England and Scotland, we stopped to see Hadrian’s Wall. I stood up there and I tried to imagine what it was like to be a Roman legionary, standing on this wall, looking at these distant hills.

“It was a very profound feeling. For the Romans at that time, this was the end of civilization; it was the end of the world. We know that there were Scots beyond the hills, but they didn’t know that.

“It could have been any kind of monster. It was the sense of this barrier against dark forces – it planted something in me. But when you write fantasy, everything is bigger and more colourful, so I took the Wall and made it three times as long and 700 feet high, and made it out of ice.”

After that period, we can still find references to the people of the site, but we have examine stone inscriptions to further decipher their names. Here is a list of some of my favourite individuals who lives at Vindolanda and the artefacts which link to them.

Roman writing tablet from the Vindolanda Roman fort of Hadrian’s Wall, in Northumberland (1st-2nd century AD). Tablet 343: Letter from Octavius to Candidus concerning supplies of wheat, hides and sinews. British Museum. (Credit: Michel Wal / CC)

Iulius Verecundus

We know of Verecundus from several writing tablets. He was the first commanding officer stationed at Vindolanda and oversaw the First Cohort of Tungrians. In 2017, 26 new fragments of tablets were found, all dating to the time when Verecundus was in charge.

They were found on a small cobbled path or street outside the walls of the first fort, and date to around 90AD when the first fort was upgraded to the larger second fort on the site. It is likley that this scattered hoard was the result of Verecudus moving to a larger residence and clearing out his old home. These letters, both written to and by Vercundus help us to understand more about his life.

One of the most complete tablets was sent by the decurion Masclus who appears in other letters at Vindolanda. In this letter, Masclus is away from Vindolanda and corresponds back to Verecundus.

Masclus writes on two subjects. First, he asks for leave for five of his men. Second, he requests the return of a cleaving-knife and reports that he has sent Verecundus come plant cuttings. Four of the 26 tablets, including the letter between Masclus and Verecundus are now on display in Vindolanda’s Museum.

Lady Lepidina

Birthday party invitation from Claudia Severa to Sulpicia Lepidina

From the next period at the site, c. 100-105AD, comes another individual known to us by three tablets. Sulpicia Lepidina is the wife of Flavius Cerialis, the commanding officer of the Ninth Cohort of Batavians (modern Netherlands).

She is probably the most famous woman from the site as one of the tablets has the oldest known writing between two women from Britain. In a birthday party invitation Claudia Severa, wife of Aelius Brocchus at Briga fort, invites Lepidina to her party on 11 September ‘to make her day more pleasant by her presence’.

Unfortunately, we don’t know if Lepidina went to the party, but we do know that Claudia Severa wrote her final salutation to her friend in her own hand, showing that she was literate. The letter also proves that elite women were on the frontier with their husbands in a time before Hadrian’s Wall was built.

Shoe uncovered at Lepidina’s house.

Found in Lepidina’s house, or the period III commanding officer’s residence, is this tiny but fantastic leather slipper. The slipper is stamped with the maker’s mark, so we know that it was imported from Gaul. It would have been a very expensive shoe, one of the nicest in the collection of some 5,000 shoes and boots from the site.

The probable reason for discard is that the toe thong has broken. As it was found in Lepidina’s house it is easy to suggest that it might have been hers and that she might have even worn it to Severa’s birthday party. Visitors can see this shoe on display in the museum.

Tagomas

We know of Tagomas from writing tablets and a graffitied amphora handle. From the tablets we know he was a vexsillari or standard bearer from a detachment of Vardullian (northern Spain) cavalry stationed at the fort c. 105-118AD. Both tablets are lists of accounts.

The most interesting information from these tablets is that in one of them it is not Tagomas himself owing money but his contubernalis or mess mate. Roman soldiers were not allowed to marry at this time, but many had common law wives. It is suggested that Tagomas’ contubernalis was just this and that she could not list her name on army accounts.

Finally, we know from the amphora graffiti that he liked olives stewed in wine and that he did not trust his fellow soldiers as he had to mark his food with his name.

Sulpicius Pudens

As commanding officer of the Forth Cohort of Gaul stationed at Vindolanda in the 3rd century AD, Sulpicius Pudens left his name on an altar to the God Jupiter Dolichenus inside the last stone fort at Vindolanda. Uncovered in 2009, the altar was found with the inscription face down which helped to preserve the writing.

The inscription reads ‘To Jupiter Best and Greatest of Doliche, Sulpicius Pudens, prefect of the Forth Cohort of Gauls, fulfilled his vow willingly and deservedly.’ Jupiter Dolichenus is a mixing between the chief Roman god Jupiter and a Persian weather god.

The side of the altar is carved with Jupiter standing on a bull’s back holding an axe in one hand and thunderbolts in the other. A replica of the altar can be seen in situ in the temple to the god on the site at Vindolanda with the real object on display in the museum.

Vindolanda Jupiter of Doliche Altar.

Brigomaglos

Our last name was found sometime after 1863 when the Vindolanda property was owned by antiquarian John Clayton. During improvements to farm drains the tombstone of Brigomaglos was found and he is regarded as a late fifth or early sixth century Christian from the Hic Iacit formula or early Christian formula on the stone.

It is translated to ‘Brigomaglos lies here’. The name of Brigomaglos is a familiar type of Celtic name, consisting of two main elements ‘brigo’ meaning ‘high’ and ‘maglos’ meaning ‘chief, lord’. We do know that there was a Christian community living at Vindolanda in this period.

Sketch of the tombstone of Brigomaglos.

Recent excavations have revealed a number of small chapel churches as well as other object with Christian symbolism. A new permanent exhibition room opened in September 2020 at Vindolanda about this period.

Barbara Birley is Curator for Roman Vindolanda Site & Museum and the Roman Army Museum. She and other curators of the remarkable collections from Hadrian’s Wall present a striking new contribution to understanding the archaeology of a Roman frontier in ‘Living on the Edge of Empire‘ by Rob Collins, available to order now. It was published by Pen and Sword on 3 August 2020.

Taking Rome in a different direction

In contrast to his predecessor Trajan, who greatly expanded Roman territory into Eastern Europe and the Middle East, Hadrian was more concerned about maintaining the integrity of the Empire than gaining more ground.

In fact, Hadrian withdrew from Trajan’s conquests in Parthia and Mesopotamia, and was markedly less warlike than the previous Emperor. Some sources suggest this was a petty act of vengeance against the former Emperor, nonetheless, what is more likely is that Hadrian did not hold these territories in high enough regard to see it worth stationing thousands of troops there.

A skilled administrator, Hadrian spent more of his time outside of Rome than in the capital, visiting the outposts of the Empire and mingling with common soldiers. In fact, a full year had passed since succeeding Emperor Trajan before Hadrian came to Rome in 118 AD.

Hadrian’s wanderlust

Yet in Rome Hadrian felt less than welcome. The Senate was hostile to the new Emperor and despite gaining some public favour by cancelling large amounts of debt, Hadrian’s thoughts were elsewhere: with the defences of the Empire.

So Hadrian left to oversee the borders of Roman territory — from tours of Gaul to Germania to Britannia, where he had soldiers build the famous 80-mile wall.

From Britain Hadrian journeyed to Hispania and then northern Africa, where he quashed a Moorish rebellion in Mauretania. He then travelled east to Crete, Syria, Pontus and Asia Minor.

A life-long lover of Greek culture, Hadrian toured the Hellenic territories of Thracia, Greece, Athens, Sicily and Moesia as well as Dacia and before finally returning to Rome in 125 AD.

But it wasn’t long before Hadrian’s feet began to itch again and he went back to Athens in 129 AD. As a dedicated Hellenophile, Hadrian spent a total of three winters in Athens. As a token of his appreciation he had a library, forum and arch built for the city.

Hadrian’s Arch in Athens in front of the Acropolis. Image Credit: CC

Following Athens the Emperor visited Pamphylia, Phyrgia, Cilicia, Syria, Cappadocia, Pontus and Antioch before arriving in Judea in 130 AD. It was with the inhabitants of this land that Hadrian would face his greatest struggles.

But first Hadrian continued to travel — from Judea to Egypt, back to Syria, Asia (Western Anatolia) and Athens again before returning to Rome.

Hadrian’s plans for Jerusalem

Bust of Hadrian. Image Credit: Public Domain

There had long been bad blood between Rome and Judea, especially since the Great Jewish Revolt of 66 AD and the Kitos War of 115 – 117 AD between Jewish rebels in the diaspora and Roman citizens in Cyprus, Egypt, Libya and Mesopotamia, the latter of which took place under Trajan’s reign. But Hadrian’s dreams for Jerusalem would only make matters worse.

He planned to turn it into a Roman city, replete with a temple of Jupiter on the site of the Great Temple. Moreover, Hadrian’s Hellenistic outlook did not agree with Jewish practices such as circumcision, which he had banned. The final straw was the collapse of Solomon’s tomb due to Roman construction work.

The Third Jewish Revolt

So began the Third Jewish War or the Bar Kokhba Revolt, which lasted from 132 – 136 AD, a bloody conflict that resulted in hundreds of thousands of deaths on both sides and the destruction of nearly 100 Jewish cities and almost 1,000 villages.

It all but eradicated the Jewish presence in the Jews’ own homeland and is considered by some scholars to be the start of the Jewish diaspora.

15th century representation of Hadrian expelling the Jews from Jerusalem. Image Credit: Public Domain

Hadrian’s Travels and Legacy

When the Roman Emperor Hadrian came to power in 117AD he inherited an empire that was overstretched militarily and creaking at the seams. His task was to unify and consolidate Rome’s power, rather than expand outward.

He was the third of the so-called ‘Five Good Emperors’ and presided over the glory days of the Roman Empire, initiating many building projects across the Empire, including the famous wall across Britain to keep out the barbarians.

Yet for a leader who showed less interest in expansion as opposed to internal development, Hadrian spent little time in Rome. Instead, he focused his attention of travelling across the Empire and experiencing different cultures – while at the same reminding those in the provinces who was in charge.

However, Vindolanda is thought to have been inhabited by the Romans from 85 AD, following the victory of the Roman Governor Agricola at the Battle of Mons Graupius, well before this iconic wall was built. Prior to functioning as a wall fort, the initial role played by Vindolanda was to guard the supply route known as Stanegate, which ran from east to west.

Vindolanda history

Like most Roman forts, Vindolanda followed several phases of construction. It began as a turf rampart and by the late 80s AD it was a permanent turf and timber fort in the classic Roman playing-card shape. It was aligned east-west, with a stone headquarters building, an officer’s house, and a small bathhouse situated down the slope on the eastern side.

During the Hadrianic period, this whole fort was demolished and a new structure was built facing north-south. Attached to the west of this Hadrianic fort was a small civilian settlement, called a vicus, within the remains of the old rampart and which incorporated a fine bathhouse and a mansio, a guesthouse with space for up to six residents travelling along the Stanegate on official business. All of this was enlarged and rebuilt in stone during the early 3rd century AD, and it is this ground plan that we see today. The famous Vindolanda tablets date to the pre-Hadrianic fort, though they are typical of Roman military life in any period.

Vindolanda today

Today, Vindolanda remains very well preserved and there is much to see. The structures at Vindolanda range from a pre-Hadriatic baths complex to a post-Roman mausoleum and church. There are military offices and barracks dating to the Severan period and numerous sites from the 3rd and 4th centuries including houses, workshops, a Praetorium, a temple and more baths.

In addition to the reconstructions and excavated elements, there are also several replica sites on display, including a great timber and stone model of a section of Hadrian’s Wall and several Roman buildings such as a house and a shop, which really bring the experience to life.

For those wanting to see what else has been found at the excavations, the Vindolanda museum offers an array of artefacts including one of the country’s biggest ancient leather collections. Writing tablets have also been well preserved and, while many of these particularly rare finds are now at the British Museum, some are always on display at Vindolanda, offering a fantastic insight into the lives of its former residents through their written words.

Getting to Vindolanda

The nearest railway station is Bardon Mill. Connections can be made from Carlisle in the West and at Newcastle-upon-Tyne in the East.

Although its occupation was brief (142-164 and then briefly between 208 and 211), for a time this wall served as the farthest north, physical border of the Roman Empire.

To maintain this far-flung frontier, the Romans placed strong garrisons in regularly spaced out forts. These garrisons consisted almost-completely of auxiliary (non-Roman citizen) troops, hailing from regions as far away as Syria.

Below are 8 auxiliary units that served on Rome’s northernmost frontier during the 2nd century AD.

Forts and Fortlets associated with the Antonine Wall. Credit: myself / Commons.

1. First Cohort of Hamian archers

The forefathers of these auxiliaries may have come over to Britain during the first invasion of Britain in AD 43. This First Cohort consisted of 500 skilled archers who originated from Hama in Syria.

Records show that it served at Carvoran on Hadrian’s Wall and during the Antonine period, it served at the fort at Bar Hill. After Roman troops withdrew back to Hadrian’s Wall it was probably deployed at both Housesteads and again at Carvoran.

Recreation of a Hamian Archer. Image credit: John Richardson (author).

2. First Cohort of Tungrians

The First Cohort of Tungrians originated from what we call today Belgium and consisted of a force of some 1,000 infantry. It was also found on Hadrian’s Wall at Carrawburgh.

The Tungrians were also based at the Roman Forts of Cramond by the river Forth and Castlecary on the Antonine Wall. It was later based during the 3rd century onward at Housestead’s on Hadrian’s Wall.

Auxiliary tablet of the First Cohort of Tungrians from Castlecary Fort.

3. First Cohort of Baetasians

This unit of 500 comprised of the First Cohort of auxiliary soldiers and came from the area we know as the Netherlands. Before being sent north to the Antonine Wall there is an inscription that suggests they served in the Manchester area.

On being moved north the records show that this unit was at Old Kilpatrick on the western end of the Antonine Wall by the River Clyde, and later at Bar Hill. On the withdrawal south this unit was sent to the Cumbrian coast and relocated to Maryport.

Reconstructed inscription from Bar Hill Roman Fort, mentioning the First Baestasian Cohort.

4. Second Cohort of Thracians

This unit can be traced from having being at Mumrill’s Fort on the Antonine Wall. Known as the Second Cohort this was a mixed unit of both cavalry and infantry. These soldiers came from what we call modern today Bulgaria.

Other records and inscriptions show they also served later on the Cumbrian Coast at the fort named as Moresby.

Funerary inscription for Nectovelius from Mumrills fort. The inscription highlights Nectovelius’ service with the Second Thracian Cohort.

5. Fourth Cohort of Gauls

The Fourth Cohort of Gauls come from modern day France. It was a mixed auxiliary force of cavalry and infantry soldiers, with a unit strength of some 600. Again these auxiliary troops may have come to Britain during the invasion of AD 43.

Records and inscriptions reveal it being at Castlestead’s fort on Hadrian’s Wall and at Vindolanda. It moved north to the Antonine Wall where it was stationed at Castlehill Fort. It was from this fort we know the name of the Roman commander, one Pisentius Lustus, who had an altar made to honour the Parade Ground Goddesses.

The final record shows it back serving at Vindolanda.

Altar dedicated to the Goddesses of the Parade-ground and Britannia at Castlehill Fort. Reference to the 4th Gallic Cohort (COH IIII GAL) is visible near the bottom of the inscription. Image credit: George MacDonald / Commons.

6. First Cohort of Vardullians

This was a unit that came from the north of Spain, (Hispania Terraconensis) raised as the First Cohort of Vardullians, with a field strength of some 1,000 men.

One of the earliest locations along the Antonine Wall was that it was at the fort at Castlecary. However, because of the units size it must also have been stationed at other forts.

One other source suggests that it also served in North Africa, as pottery from North Africa has been found along sites on the Antonine Wall. So it is highly likely that some of the troops probably came from the campaigns of the war in Africa.

Other sites where this unit served were on forts along Hadrian’s Wall as well as being at High Rochester and Cappuck in the Borders area.

7. Sixth Cohort of Nervians

Another of the most famous units of auxiliary infantry were the Nervii, some 500 strong who came from modern Belgium. They were known as the Sixth Cohort of Nervians. Julius Caesar enlisted these soldiers into the Roman Army after he witnessed their military powers.

Their headquarters on the Antonine Wall was at the fort called Rough Castle in Stirlingshire, where the unit raised an altar to commemorate victory, after their part in building the fort principia (central plaza). During their time at this fort, the Nervii was under the command of a Roman officer from the XX Legion, named Gaius Flavius Betto.

This Sixth Cohort of the Nervii can be traced to Hadrian’s Wall, where they based at Great Chester’s Fort.

Recreation of a soldier of a Nervii auxiliary. Image credit: John Richardson (author).

8. First Cohort of Batavians

Although evidence is unclear, there are inscriptions from an altar at Castlecary Fort on the Antonine Wall that there was a unit of Batavians, who originated from the area we call the Netherlands today.

It was recorded as the First Cohort of Batavians, a mixed auxiliary unit of both cavalry and infantry. The Cohort served under Agricola, during his engagements in Scotland (late 1^st century AD).

The Cohort is also known at sites along Hadrian’s Wall, such as Carrawburgh.

Veteran of the British Army John Richardson is the founder of the Roman Living History Society, “The Antonine Guard”. The Romans and The Antonine Wall of Scotland is his first book and was published on 26 September 2019, by Lulu Self-Publishing .