Join Natalie as she reveals how this myth gave birth to the ancient world’s most profound and secretive religious tradition: the Eleusinian Mysteries. Tracing the path of ancient initiates from Athens to Eleusis, Natalie examines rare fragments like the ‘Great Eleusinian Relief’ and the ‘Ninnion Tablet’ to uncover the only surviving visual clues to these top-secret rituals. She explores why thousands of pilgrims flocked to Eleusis for centuries, and how this visceral tale of maternal fury and restorative love has inspired two and a half millennia of art. 

A mother’s strike

Greece has always been a land of harsh agricultural reality. In the ancient world, if the land failed, death followed swiftly. When Demeter, the goddess of the harvest, abandoned Mount Olympus in grief over her daughter’s abduction, the world withered.

Natalie explains that Demeter’s fury was a cosmic strike, refusing to let the earth be fertile until Persephone was returned. This forced the hand of Zeus, who intervened not out of compassion, but because the mortals had stopped sending sacrifices – there were simply no crops to offer the gods.

The pomegranate trap

In the myth, Zeus sent Hermes to the Underworld to retrieve Persephone, but Hades, the possessive and cunning King of the Dead, was prepared – freedom would come at a price. He offered Persephone a parting gift: a handful of pomegranate seeds.

In the ancient logic of the Underworld, eating the food of the dead binds you to that realm forever. This was no romantic gesture; in the oldest versions of the Homeric Hymn, Persephone is trapped by a “trap wrapped in sweetness.” 

Persephone was returned to her mother in an ecstatic homecoming. Interestingly, Natalie points out how although the Homeric Hymn was written in patriarchal times, the poet still knew the depth and value of the female bond between mother and daughter. However, their joy was cut short when Demeter realised Persephone had eaten while in the Underworld. 

Zeus, keen to restore the flow of mortal offerings, brokered a dodgy deal: Persephone would spend one-third of the year with Hades and two-thirds of each year above ground with her mother. This “dark compromise” created the seasons: the winter of Demeter’s mourning and the spring of her daughter’s return.

Interestingly, Natalie explains how “this is one of the few times in all of Greek mythology that a god or goddess stands their ground against Zeus, king of the gods, and wins – at least a partial victory”.

Hermes delivers the message to Persephone and Hades

Image Credit: History Hit

The Eleusinian Mysteries

The myth explains how in gratitude to the people of Eleusis who sheltered her during her grief, Demeter gifted them sacred rites. These became the Eleusinian Mysteries, a phenomenon that lasted for over a millennium, promising immense spiritual wealth.

The story of Demeter’s gift grew into a phenomenon of the ancient world, with evidence as far back as the 7th century BC of people gathering in Athens to process to Eleusis. Thousands flocked to Eleusis each year. Anyone – regardless of class, age or gender – could take part, provided they hadn’t committed murder – from common servants to philosophers such as Plato, orators like Cicero, and even Roman Emperors like Hadrian and Augustus. 

The appeal was simple but revolutionary: the Mysteries offered hope. While most Greeks viewed the afterlife as a dreary existence as a powerless “shade,” initiates were promised a better fate.

Tantalising clues: the archaeology of a secret

Because the rites were protected by a vow of silence – punishable by execution – nothing was ever written down. Natalie visits the National Archaeological Museum in Athens to speak with Dr Tulsi Parikh, an expert on the archaeology of Ancient Greek religion, and piece together the rituals from “tiny, tiny fragments” of evidence that have survived – noting how remarkable it is “how much we can still uncover from so little”.

• The Great Eleusinian Relief: A 5th-century marble masterpiece showing Demeter handing sheaves of wheat to Triptolemus, teaching humankind the art of agriculture. He is also pictured with a winged, serpent-entwined chariot,  gifted so he could spread agricultural knowledge across the globe.
• The Ninnion Tablet: The only known visual representation of the rituals. It depicts initiates with lit torches and wreaths walking toward the goddesses, suggesting the ceremony’s climax took place in the dead of night.

Dr Tulsi Parikh and Natalie Haynes standing by The Great Eleusinian Relief

Image Credit: History Hit

Ritual purification and hallucinogens?

Natalie follows the 13-mile ‘Sacred Way’ from the Acropolis to Eleusis for the 9 day celebration. Archaeologist Professor Rebecca Sweetman explains the visceral nature of the purification: initiates would carry animals (usually piglets) into the sea to wash them before a massive sacrifice.

After reaching the sanctuary at Eleusis (surrounded by symbols and performances to remind them of the myth), the climax occurred in the Telesterion, the “holiest of holies.” Inside this auditorium, the deepest secrets were revealed. Rebecca shares a fascinating theory: given the massive grain silos nearby, initiates may have been given kykeon – a grain-based drink that potentially contained ergot (mouldy grain). This would have provided a potent hallucinogenic effect, ensuring the “mind-blowing” spiritual experience that kept pilgrims returning for centuries.

Sanctuary of Demeter at Eleusis

Image Credit: History Hit

A legacy of maternal fury

The power of this myth lies in its rare focus on female emotion in what was a patriarchal Greece. Natalie examines how this “maternal fury” has inspired two and a half millennia of art, from 4th-century BC frescos to the modern musical Hadestown.

In the Broadway hit, Persephone is reimagined as a darker queen, a modern woman yearning for the surface, while Hades remains the manipulative schemer of the ancient sources.

The unbreakable bond

Finally, Natalie views the ‘Demeter of Knidos’, a breathtaking statue capturing the goddess’s patient, serene expression – a reminder that Demeter is a goddess who will wait as long as it takes to get what she wants.

Natalie concludes by reflecting how “The ultimate victory of the myth is that maternal devotion proved to be the single unbreakable force in the Greek cosmos”. The bond between mother and daughter was a source of both destructive fury and creative, restorative love – a power that forced even the King of the Gods to compromise.

Watch the series conclusion of Divine Fury: Demeter and Persephone – The Mystery on History Hit to see Natalie Haynes delves into the dark compromise that resolved the myth of Demeter and Persephone.

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In History Hit’s new documentary, Divine Fury: Demeter and Persephone – How a Mother’s Love Made the Seasons, acclaimed classicist Natalie Haynes explores the enduring legacy of this ancient tale – one of the Greeks’ most powerful and enduring myths. It is a story of love, loss, rage, and transformation that brought the mortal world to the brink of ruin and, ultimately, gave the Greeks an explanation for the very rhythm of the seasons.

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The Abduction

Episode 1: ‘Abduction’ sees the start of the story – and a kidnapping. Hades, the dark Lord of the Underworld, emerged from the earth to snatch the young goddess Persephone while she was gathering flowers. It was an act of divine sanctioned theft; Persephone’s own father, Zeus, had secretly given Hades permission to take her as his bride.

However, Hades made a catastrophic error: he forgot about Persephone’s mother, Demeter. As the goddess of agriculture and the Earth’s fertility, Demeter was one of the most powerful Olympian deities. When her daughter vanished, her grief quickly curdled into a terrifying fury.

Natalie Haynes explains that for the ancient Greeks, this wasn’t just a bedtime story; it mirrored the traumatic reality of marriage customs, where young girls (often only 14 years old) were abruptly removed from their families to live as strangers in a new home. She talks to classicist Dr Daisy Dunn to explore what marriage meant for women in ancient Greece, and how the story of Persephone helped girls prepare for this transition. 

Dr Daisy Dunn shows Natalie Haynes some ancient artefacts depicting Persephone on the eve of her marriage

Image Credit: History Hit

Tracing the “Homeric Hymn”

To unravel the layers of this myth, Natalie turns to a miraculous survival of ancient literature: the Homeric Hymn to Demeter – investigating how this myth mirrored the lives of people in Ancient Greece. Lost for centuries, a manuscript of the poem was famously rediscovered in a Russian farmhouse in 1777. Though written down in the 7th or 6th centuries BC, the hymn preserves an even older oral tradition.

Natalie’s journey takes her from the British Museum to the National Archaeological Museum of Athens, where she examines the dual nature of these goddesses. Demeter is depicted as a figure of maternal tenderness but also of world-ending power. Meanwhile, Persephone evolves from Kore (the innocent girl) to the “Red Queen,” the formidable and dreaded co-ruler of the Underworld.

History Hit crew filming in Athens

The desolation of the earth

As Demeter searched for her daughter, she refused to eat, wash, or return to Mount Olympus. She wandered the earth in the guise of an old woman, eventually finding rest at the Kallichoron well in Eleusis.

Natalie visits the ruins of the sanctuary at Eleusis, where myth and reality coincide. It was here that Demeter was welcomed into the home of King Celeus. However, because she was in mourning, she rejected the finest hospitality, only finding a brief moment of respite when a servant named Iambe coaxed a laugh from her with audacious jokes.

But Demeter’s sorrow could not be contained by mortal kindness. In her rage, she made the “all-nourishing land” barren. For a civilisation where 4 out of 5 people were farmers, this was a story that played into their deepest fears. Crops withered, sheep perished, and the human race faced extinction. Crucially for the gods, the smoke of animal sacrifices stopped rising to Olympus. It was this – the hunger of the gods – that finally forced Zeus to intervene.

History Hit filming on the River Acheron

The descent to the ‘River of Woe’

To understand Persephone’s imprisonment, Natalie travels to the rugged mountains of Epirus and the River Acheron, one of the mythical rivers of the Underworld, known to the ancients as the “River of Woe.” Legend says the ferryman Charon transported souls across these waters to Hades’ realm.

Natalie Haynes and some of the History Hit production crew on the River Acheron

Natalie explores the Necromanteion of Acheron, a site where the living once spoke to the dead. Accompanied by expert Dr Tobias Myers, she descends into underground chambers where ancient pilgrims may have used hallucinogens and blood sacrifices to communicate with the spirits below.

“For the Greeks,” Natalie notes, “myth was simply history that happened long ago.” The geography of the underworld wasn’t abstract; it was mapped onto real-world spots like these dark, vaulted ruins.

Production shot of Dr. Tobias Myers talking to Natalie Haynes about the Necromanteion of Acheron

Image Credit: History Hit

The great mystery remains

Persephone remained languishing in the dark, but the earth could not survive without Demeter’s favour. Is Persephone doomed to spend eternity in the shadows, or can a mother’s love force the gates of hell to open?

The dramatic conclusion of the myth – and the birth of the Eleusinian Mysteries, the most secret and sacred religious rites of the ancient world – awaits in the next chapter of our journey.

Episode 1: ‘Abduction’ is available now. Episode 2: ‘The Mystery’ will be released on 15 January 2026.

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In the sixth and final episode of History Hit’s series exploring the remarkable collections of the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford, presenter Dan Snow joins Dr Liam McNamara, Keeper of Antiquities, to journey into Egypt’s distant past – long before the pyramids in The Ashmolean Up Close: Origins of Ancient Egypt. Through extraordinary artefacts from the Predynastic period (c. 4,000–3,100 BC), they uncover how early beliefs, artistry, and power structures along the Nile laid the essential foundations for the world we recognise as Ancient Egypt.

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The early Nile: chaos and control

Over 6,000 years ago, Egypt was divided between the fertile Lower Egypt in the north and the arid Upper Egypt in the south. Yet, even in these scattered agricultural communities, a powerful culture was already forming. Regional chieftains were emerging as centralised rulers, laying the groundwork for future dynasties.

While the Ashmolean’s collection features fascinating grand pieces from this era like the large limestone statue of the Ancient Egyptian fertility god Min (c. 3,300 BC), the greatest insights into the world these early gods and rulers emerged from come from smaller, finely crafted objects. In the documentary, Dan is granted special access to rare collection items dating from 3,600 BC onwards – objects that were already considered ancient by the time of the great pharaohs.

Dan is shown a realistic pottery hippo as well as a model of a carved scorpion – objects that were symbols of power, reflecting the early Egyptians’ attempts to control chaos and dominate the natural landscape.

Status was also shown through the materials such objects were made from, highlighting the surprising far-reaching trade connections across the ancient world. Dan examines a small blue figurine made from Lapis lazuli, a material whose nearest source was Badakhshan in Afghanistan. This highlights the surprising, far-reaching trade connections across the ancient world long before the height of the New Kingdom.

Other objects, such as a ceremonial palette (a common item in high-status burials), were often carved and decorated with images associated with the rulers’ burgeoning power and prestige, including mythical creatures.

Dan Snow talks to Dr Liam MacNamara about the statue of the Ancient Egyptian fertility god, Min.

Image Credit: History Hit

King Scorpion’s colossal macehead

One of the Ashmolean’s most remarkable objects offers a rare glimpse into the emergence of Egypt’s earliest rulers and the first steps towards unification: a colossal macehead. Although maceheads were originally weapons, this stunning limestone fragment, discovered in Hierakonpolis (the capital of Upper Egypt), is thought to have been created solely for ceremonial purposes as a symbol of authority.

Liam explains to Dan that this colossal macehead belonged to ‘King Scorpion’ – an actual name, not a nickname. The ruler is pictured in the centre, deliberately shown on a much larger scale than all other figures, establishing his absolute authority.

Dan notes the striking familiarity of the image that looks very much like the depictions of Pharaohs such as Rameses, despite the fact this mace head was made way before the Pharaoh period. King Scorpion is wearing the white crown of Upper Egypt and the traditional royal costume, including a bull’s tail hanging behind his leg – a symbol of power and virility that persisted for millennia.

Unlike later pharaohs often depicted taking on military enemies, King Scorpion is shown holding a pick, seemingly breaking open an irrigation canal he is standing upon. Liam clarifies that the idea of controlling the annual inundation of the Nile was a vital royal prerogative, demonstrating that the ‘enemy’ here was the natural world, ensuring abundance for his people.

Despite living hundreds of years before the First Dynasty, Dan notes how the depiction of King Scorpion looks “like a Pharaoh in all but name.” Liam agrees, noting that he’s wearing exactly the same crown and costume as Rameses would thousands of years later – showing an extraordinary continuity that proves kingship was already fully formed in the Predynastic period, with King Scorpion being one of the earliest kings of Egypt. 

Close-up of King Scorpion’s macehead, showing the image of him in a similar way to the Pharaohs, and with hanging birds visible near the top, denoting ‘subject people’.

Image Credit: History Hit

The dawn of empire

The macehead holds further clues about the formation of the Egyptian state, including a row of little lapwing birds hanging from their necks at the top of the mace head. Liam explains that these birds in later hieroglyphs write the word for ‘subject people’. Since the King is wearing the crown of Upper Egypt (the South), these birds likely represent regions he has conquered.

Furthermore, Egyptologists speculate that the missing side of the macehead may have shown King Scorpion wearing the red crown of Lower Egypt. Dan notes that this would show “pretty much all of Egypt brought under one sovereign,” confirming the theory that this object may document the initial unification of Upper and Lower Egypt, suggesting King Scorpion might have been the Alfred the Great or Charlemagne of Ancient Egypt – the singular figure who brought together the disparate territories under one banner.

Nevertheless, as Liam points out, while “King Scorpion was clearly a very high status ruler, it’s important to know that there’s a long history of development before this.”

This pivotal moment marks the transformation into the Egypt we recognise, hundreds of years before the first dynasty or pyramid stood. “Long before the infamous Ancient Egypt of Pharaohs and pyramids, early communities along the Nile were laying the foundations of one of history’s most enduring cultures,” concludes Dan. “These objects in the Ashmolean’s collection capture a pivotal moment, the dawn of kingship, the roots of belief, and the early unification of a land that would one day become legendary.”

Join Dan Snow and Dr. Liam McNamara to journey back to the very origins of power in The Ashmolean Up Close: Origins of Ancient Egypt and discover more about the fascinating objects in the Ashmolean’s collection.

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Founded by Greek colonists 2,500 years ago, Paestum is a living testament to a vibrant, untold chapter of the ancient Mediterranean. Originally named Poseidonia, after the Greek god of the sea, the city was one of over 50 Greek settlements established along the Italian coastline – a region that became known as Magna Grecia (‘Greater Greece’). The settlers brought their rich culture, thriving on the fertile agricultural soils and lucrative trade routes, leaving an indelible mark in southern Italy well before the rise of Rome.

In History Hit’s new documentary, Paestum: A Tale of Three Cities, Tristan explores the magnificent ruins, revealing how three incredible civilisations – the Greeks, the native Italian Lucanians, and the mighty Romans – collided in this single, extraordinary location. 

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Here, we focus on the city’s foundational Greek age, deciphering the art and architecture the Greeks left behind.

The colossal temples: a pinnacle of Greek grandeur

Paestum boasts three of the best-preserved, colossal ancient Greek temples in the world, monuments that rival anything found in Greece itself. Tristan focuses on the Temple of Neptune, which he rates as one of the best-preserved ancient Greek temples in the world. Standing over 10 metres tall and built decades before the famous Parthenon, it is the pinnacle of the Greek Doric style, instantly commanding awe with its long, fluted columns.

Inside the Temple of Neptune, Paestum, Southern Italy.

This documentary takes you inside the temple’s sacred heart and challenges assumptions about its dedication. While early archaeologists assumed the most monumental temple belonged to Poseidon, Director Dr Tiziana D’Angelo explains that evidence now points towards the goddess Hera or perhaps Apollo.

The temples also reveal a surprising truth of ancient ritual: most of the sacred ceremonies took place outside by the altar, rather than within the god’s house.

Paestum, Southern Italy

Image Credit: History Hit

The treasure of the Tomb of the Diver

The artistic legacy of Greek Paestum is revealed in one of its greatest treasures: the Tomb of the Diver. Discovered in 1968, this is one of the only surviving examples of a complete Greek wall painting from the early 5th century BC anywhere in the world.

In the documentary, Tristan and Tiziana discuss the symbolic meaning of this breathtaking fresco, which contains a central figure, diving into water – is it a metaphor for the passage from life to the afterlife, or a realistic scene of daily life? The other frescoes depict scenes of classical Greek life, including symposiums (Greek drinking parties) – scenes instantly recognisable to Greeks across the Mediterranean. This astonishing find proves that the Greek cultural zenith was not confined to Athens, but flourished with equal brilliance here in Southern Italy.

The Tomb of the Diver, Paestum, Southern Italy

Image Credit: History Hit

The collision of cultures

The documentary continues its journey by exploring the subsequent periods that defined the city, showcasing dramatic shifts in power and culture:

• The Lucanians – warriors and cultural fusion: Two centuries after its foundation, native Italian tribes, the Lucanians, took over the city. While some bitter Greek sources labeled them “barbarians,” you’ll see the reality was far more complex: far from destroying Greek culture, the Lucanians deeply admired it. They transformed the city’s art to feature vivid scenes of warriors and military prowess, creating a profound cultural fusion that incorporated Greek styles.
• The Roman conquest: Control shifted again in 275 BC. The Lucanians – having unwisely allied with the Greek warlord Pyrrhus against Rome – lost their protector and the city was conquered. The Romans were swift to establish authority, building the Forum as a new political and urban centre. Yet, while replacing many Greek structures, the Romans allowed the magnificent temples to stand, underscoring their enduring respect for Paestum’s Greek origins and ensuring the city’s foundational culture survived.

Tristan and Dr Tiziana D’Angelo stand beside a Lucanian artwork depicting chariot racing.

Image Credit: History Hit

As Tristan points out, Paestum fundamentally challenges the perception that ancient Italy was exclusively Roman, demonstrating instead that Rome existed alongside a vast array of extraordinary civilizations. As the site epitomises the dramatic collision of Greek, Lucanian, and Roman cultures, it reveals the rich, often overshadowed, histories of people who left behind some of the most beautiful wonders of the ancient world.

Join Tristan Hughes as he explores these layers of history, uncovering how three civilisations converged at this single, extraordinary site. Watch Paestum: A Tale of Three Cities to discover the art, politics, and power of the Mediterranean’s hidden gem.

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After years of civil war and instability, History Hit has gained unique access as the first documentary team in 15 years to film in the rarely seen extraordinary ancient sites within Cyrenaica, centred around one of the greatest cities of the ancient world, Cyrene – a vibrant and important part of the Greek and Roman world. 

This is a fascinating journey into a spectacular region where documentaries rarely go. From the majestic monumental Greek cities to active archaeology being revealed right before our eyes on the coast, this film celebrates the beauty, significance, and untold history of one of the ancient Mediterranean’s most powerful regions. Prepare for a film like no other, promising unprecedented access and a view of ancient history you’ve never seen.

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The coastal city emerging from the waves

Most modern understanding of Libya is framed by the era of Colonel Gaddafi and the subsequent civil war. However, Dan’s journey travels back 2,000 years and beyond to Cyrenaica, a fertile strip of land in northeastern Libya that was once the breadbasket and powerhouse of the ancient Mediterranean. As Dan explains, “Very few news crews, let alone history documentary-makers get to come here.” 

Dan’s journey begins at the bay of Al Haniyah on the Mediterranean coast, where a fascinating archaeology project is rediscovering a long-lost coastal city, revealing its secrets thanks to natural coastal erosion. Working with teams from the University of Ulster and the University of Benghazi, Dan witnesses fascinating, active archaeology in progress that is disclosing the people who lived here two millennia ago. 

Dan Snow sees how objects embedded in the cliffs are being exposed due to coastal erosion.

Image Credit: History Hit

“Ancient objects are literally falling out of the cliffs,” Dan notes, as the intense winter storms of North Africa claw away at the cliff face, exposing layers of history spanning over 1,000 years. The erosion is a race against time, but offers a unique, exposed cross-section of an ancient port. Dan and the lead archaeologist, Dr. Julia Nikolaus, even discover human bones that have fallen out of a burial, a visceral reminder that the waves of the Mediterranean are exposing all aspects of daily life and death at Al Haniyah.

Along with hundreds of pottery shards, monumental buildings – including the remains of a temple and a Roman villa – are emerging, along with remaining patches of mosaic floors. This seemingly obscure town, which left little impression in the history books, is transforming our understanding of trade, proving it was a crucial hub for exporting goods like wine and Cyrenaican oil – once described as the oil of the ancient world.

Dan Snow with lead archaeologist Dr Julia Nikolaus – they are pointing at a blocked-up doorway or window emerging from the cliffs

Image Credit: History Hit

Dan even joins a team conducting an underwater survey that is uncovering columns and signs of an ancient harbour beneath the waves, proving that a “new chapter in the story of Cyrenaica is being recorded right here.”

We can imagine merchant ships anchored offshore; crews calling out as heavy amphorae were loaded; traders bargaining in the shade of warehouses; families strolling along the harbour-front. For centuries, this place supported busy routines of work, travel, and exchange.

The wonder of Cyrene: A claim to power

Heading inland, Dan travels up into the fertile mountains, site of the magnificent city of Cyrene, which was a wonder of the ancient Graeco-Roman world and a profound statement of Greek identity. It is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site. 

Dan’s excitement of exploring here is palpable. “I’ve dreamed of coming here all my life” says Dan. “We’ve been told that we’re (History Hit) are the first television crew to come and film here since the fall of Gaddafi. And as a result we have the whole place to ourselves – it feels almost like  we’re discovering it for the first time”. 

The Gymnasium at Cyrene, Libya, with the small theatre visible in the background.

Image Credit: History Hit

Cyrene’s grand architecture – including the colossal Greek gymnasium, a centre of learning and physical fitness lined with Doric columns – was designed to proclaim that visitors were entering the Greek world. Its origins, revealed in ancient writings by Herodotus, were humble: struggling Greek colonists were shown the fertile land by indigenous Libyans. Dan also explores a splendid house complete with an outdoor Hall of the Muses, where rich guests would enjoy music and poetry beneath a warm North African sky.  

The city’s immense wealth stemmed from one unique cash crop: Silphium. This legendary plant, which no longer exists, was literally worth its weight in gold due to its supposed healing properties. Dan visits the marketplace where this invaluable commodity was traded, a trade so vital it was thought to be protected by the goddess of agriculture, Demeter. Silphium was transported from Cyrene down to the coast, and then exported to the wealthy centres of the ancient Mediterranean, from Alexandria to Athens and Rome. 

Cyrene also exported knowledge. It was the home of the philosopher Aristippus, who founded the hedonistic school of thought focused on pleasure, and his daughter Arete, believed to be the first female philosopher in history.

The Sanctuary of Apollo in Cyrene, Libya

Image Credit: History Hit

In a unique fusion of storytelling and innovation, History Hit’s film collaborates with Ubisoft to recreate lost parts of the ancient city of Cyrene using stunning imagery from Assassin’s Creed Origins. This allows us to picture what it would have been like to walk these very streets and visit Cyrene’s magnificent theatre, temples and sacred places (including the Temple of Apollo and the spring of Apollo) over 2,000 years ago.

From Greek gymnasium to Roman arena

Dan charts Cyrene’s evolving identity after the Romans took over in 96 BC due to dynastic squabbles in Ptolemaic Egypt, when they transformed the city to better express their Roman-ness. The massive Greek theatre was converted into a Roman amphitheatre, trading the stage for the arena and gladiatorial shows. People from here continued to feature in accounts of the Roman world, men like Simon of Cyrene who the New Testament says helped to carry Jesus’ cross to his crucifixion. 

Dan concludes his journey at the harbour city of Apollonia, which ultimately would overshadow Cyrene. Here, the final transition of the ancient world is visible: the ruins of a Christian basilica, built largely from the recycled plinths and inscriptions of dismantled Roman temples. This basilica reflects the shift to the Byzantine era, proving that the legacy of those ancient civilizations can be explored just as profoundly in Northern Africa as in Athens or Rome.

Components of the ancient temple in Apollonia were rearranged by the Byzantines to create a space for Christian worship.

Image Credit: History Hit

A mainstay of the ancient world

As Dan concludes, the sites in Libya are on the same monumental scale as the Parthenon in Athens. They make a powerful claim: the Cyrenians were not some peripheral colonial outpost; they were one of the mainstays of the ancient world. As Dan reflects,

It’s easy to forget that the Mediterranean Sea was the centre of the Ancient world. You don’t need to go to Athens or Rome… you can explore them all in Northern Africa. It has been an eye-opening experience.”

History Hit’s Head of Programming, Bill Locke, reflects on the team’s experience in Libya:

“Filming in Libya was an extraordinary experience – seeing ancient Greek pottery emerging from the cliffs in a previously untouched site by the Mediterranean, and walking through the wonders of Cyrene, the first documentary crew to film there since the fall of Gaddafi.”

We’ll be speaking to Bill in more depth soon where we’ll delve deeper to learn more about the team’s fascinating and exclusive experiences filming in a spectacular region where documentaries rarely go.

Join Dan Snow for an unprecedented look at the treasures of North Africa in Ancient Adventures: Libya.

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In a special film from 2022, Tutankhamun: A Century of Discovery, historian Dan Snow commemorated the centenary of that historic event, retracing the incredible story of dedication, despair, and dazzling triumph. Walking in the footsteps of Howard Carter, in the film Dan explores the key sites and exclusive archives that reveal the human story behind the golden mask.

The History Hit team gained unprecedented access to key locations associated with this legendary story: Highclere Castle (home of Lord Carnarvon), Tutankhamun’s Tomb in the Valley of the Kings, and the vast Howard Carter archives in Oxford, which hold the secrets of the dig. 

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A needle in a haystack

To understand the discovery, Dan first travels to the Valley of the Kings, the deep gorge in the desert where the pharaohs sought their ultimate rest. Guarded by pyramid-like peaks, this was the land of the dead, set directly across the Nile and close to Thebes (modern-day Luxor).

The film explores the profound commitment of Howard Carter, whose ambition was so singular he built a functional, almost hermitic house as close to the Valley of the Kings as possible. Dan visits the meticulously conserved house and speaks with architectural historian Dr Nicholas Warner, revealing Carter’s intense focus. For 12 agonising years, Carter found nothing. As Dr Warner reveals, 1922 was meant to be the final season funded by his great sponsor, Lord Carnarvon. Carter was completely convinced a missing tomb belonging to the obscure New Kingdom pharaoh Tutankhamun was there, but he needed to be convincing enough to keep his patron on board – a true needle-in-a-haystack quest.

Dan also travels to Highclere Castle in Hampshire, Lord Carnarvon’s home, to meet Fiona, the Countess of Carnarvon. She discusses the immense faith Carnarvon placed in Carter – a quest that cost the equivalent of £20 million in modern terms – and the shared love of Egyptology that bound the two men together.

Howard Carter, Lord Carnarvon and his daughter Lady Evelyn Herbert at the steps leading to the newly discovered tomb of Tutankhamen, November 1922

Image Credit: Harry Burton (Photographer), Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

The archive

The most intimate details of the discovery are held not in Egypt, but in Oxford. Dan travels to the Bodleian Weston Library to explore the exhibition ‘Tutankhamun – Excavating the Archives’, home to Howard Carter’s extensive records.

Dan gets up close to Carter’s first hurried journal entry: “First steps of Tomb Found.” This led to a detailed note: “Discovered tomb under tomb of Ramses VI… found seals intact.” This meant the tomb was likely an undisturbed Egyptian royal resting place. Carter was forced to wait for his financier, Carnarvon, to sail from England before breaching the final seal.

The iconic moment occurred on 26 November 1922. Dan reads Carter’s account from his excavation journal, reliving the moment the archaeologist first gazed into the dark vault. When Carnarvon asked what he saw, Carter famously replied: “It is wonderful.”

Along with curator Daniela Rosenow at the Griffith Institute, Dan also examines the original glass plate negatives. These photos are extraordinary, capturing now-familiar objects still covered in the linen and flowers from the 19-year-old pharaoh’s funeral in 1323 BC, a far more immediate and human image than the conserved treasures we see today.

Howard Carter examining the innermost coffin of Tutankhamun

Image Credit: Exclusive to The Times, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

The young king

Later in the programme, Dan travels into Tutankhamun’s tomb itself, describing it as “one of the most exciting places on earth.” Egyptologist Aliaa Ismail explains a profound irony: Tutankhamun died very young, so his tomb’s walls were left plain in the antechamber, reflecting the custom that “the longer you live, the more impressive your tomb.”

Yet, behind the wall lay the sealed and untouched burial chamber, revealing riches beyond measure. The photographs held in Oxford show what happened in the final moments of the burial: Carter’s notes detail how the team had to chop off part of the pharaoh’s feet to fit the coffin into the sarcophagus – a startling reminder of the human element in an otherwise divine ritual.

To mark the centenary, a local Oxford florist recreated one of the floral garlands found on Tutankhamun’s mummy. Dan gets a first glimpse of this meticulous recreation, which, as Professor Richard Parkinson explains, helps humanise the story. As Richard points out, the centenary is not just about gold, but “about the death of a young man.”

Immortality and legacy

Dan concludes the film back in Cairo, by being up close with Tutankhamun’s golden death mask, which he describes as “one of the most famous archaeological treasures ever recovered”: He explores some of the original treasures with conservator Eid Mertah, who uses modern techniques to understand how the treasures were made.

The legacy of Tutankhamun is a story of dedication, risk, and ultimate triumph. Howard Carter’s single-minded pursuit, Lord Carnarvon’s unwavering financial faith, and the detailed record-keeping in Oxford have ensured the pharaoh’s memory lives on. As Dan concludes, while Tutankhamun didn’t get to “rest” in the Valley of the Kings, he achieved a different form of immortality: his legacy is an inspiration for all generations.

Join Dan Snow as he walks in the footsteps of Howard Carter to relive the greatest archaeological discovery of all time in Tutankhamun: A Century of Discovery.

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Discover more of History Hit’s Egyptology collection

In History Hit’s new documentary, Scotland’s Roman Hoard: The Traprain Treasure, Tristan Hughes is granted exclusive access to the National Museum of Scotland to examine these incredible artefacts up close. Guided by leading expert Dr Fraser Hunter, Principal Curator of The National Museum of Scotland, Tristan delves into the hoard’s mysterious origins, uncovering what this treasure reveals about trade and power games at the far edges of the Roman Empire, and the true birth of medieval Scotland.

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The treasure of the ‘Barbarians’

The discovery of the Traprain Treasure is unique because it was found far outside the formal boundaries of the Roman Empire, and buried at a time when Roman Britain had receded some considerable distance to the south and was collapsing (around 450 AD). The Romans had never managed to hold onto land beyond Hadrian’s Wall long-term; further north above modern-day Edinburgh tribal groups would ultimately unite and become the Picts, who fiercely resisted Roman control.

Caught up between these powers were the Votadini, a formidable people who lived in the buffer state beyond Hadrian’s Wall. Traprain Law, east of modern-day Edinburgh, rises out of the East Lothian plain and was a major power centre for them. While the Romans called them ‘Barbarians,’ the Votadini used their strategic position to their advantage, maintaining a rewarding alliance with Rome without succumbing to its rule.

Dr Fraser Hunter describes the hoard as “one of the most remarkable finds of late-Roman silver from anywhere in the empire or beyond,” emphasising that this is a story about the powerful communities beyond the frontier, not the Romans within it.

Tristan Hughes (left) with Dr Fraser Hunter (right), Principal Curator at The National Museum of Scotland. In front of them lies some of the objects from the Traprain Treasure.

The discovery

Excavations of the site had begun in 1914, led by Alexander Curle, the former director of the Royal Scottish Museum in Edinburgh. On 12 May 1919, workmen were clearing one of the levels with a pick-axe when foreman George Pringle discovered a silver vessel. 

The treasure did not emerge pristine. It was largely found as “hack silver” – flattened, broken, and fragmented pieces. Early restorers pieced them back together, but the fragments hold a critical secret. The silver is incredibly pure (93-95%), giving it immense value, not just as art, but as a raw material. As Tristan and Fraser reveal, the meticulous way the silver was chopped into precise, weight-standardised fragments suggests this wasn’t the haphazard destruction of “barbarians,” but a careful act performed perhaps within the Roman world during a time of economic crisis.

A world in transition: Paganism and Christianity

The objects themselves speak to a world in transition, showcasing the elite culture and rising anxieties of the late Roman Empire. In the documentary, Tristan examines a beautifully preserved bowl, once a high-status washbasin for elite women, adorned with magnificent pagan imagery including a sea nereid nymph riding a sea panther. Other fragments depict the mythological hero Hercules, reflecting the classical culture of elite Roman dining.

Yet, the hoard also contains the earliest Christian item found in Scotland: a gilded silver vessel featuring detailed scenes from both the Old and New Testaments. This impressive piece of early Christian iconography, complete with Adam and Eve, and the Virgin Mary receiving the Three Wise Men, powerfully illustrates how a new religion was taking hold. This mix of pagan and Christian items in a single hoard reflects the contested, turbulent world of late antiquity.

Depiction of the Virgin Mary receiving the Three Wise Men on silver vessel from the Traprain Treasure.

Image Credit: History Hit / National Museum of Scotland

Mercenaries, money, and power games

How did so much Roman silver – over 250 objects weighing 23kg – end up buried on a Scottish hill?

The treasures came north over a long period, likely spanning a century or more, linking Traprain to the military and political turmoil of the collapsing Empire. Fraser explains that the Votadini were Rome’s eyes and ears in the North, and the silver often came north as mercenary pay or diplomatic gifts. As he puts it, “a chunk of this material is likely to be effectively their pay packets.”

In the documentary, Tristan examines silver coins from the hoard that have been deliberately clipped around the edges – according to Fraser this was a particularly British habit after the official flow of coinage ceased around 410 AD. This act of clipping silver to pay people by weight offers a clear indication of the hoard’s dating (featuring Emperors Valens and Theodosius, and Honorius) and its use in a post-Roman economy.

Far from being ‘chopped up by Barbarians’, the precision cuts and adhering to Roman weight standards suggest the silver fragments were meticulously prepared, possibly even within the Roman world during a time of economic crisis, where the material’s raw value for transport or trade was prioritised over its artistic form.

Pieces of cut silver from the Traprain Treasure

Image Credit: History Hit / National Museum of Scotland

Brought in from the Roman world as diplomatic gifts, subsidies, and mercenary payments, silver quickly became a powerful symbol of status and influence in local society. Had it not been frozen in time by burial, it would have been recycled and refashioned into magnificent brooches, chains, and rings – new status items essential for asserting influence in local society. Fraser shows Tristan a large silver military buckle decorated with the Christian Alpha and Omega symbols, indicating that some of these “swords for hire” were Christians themselves.

The Traprain Treasure proves that while the Romans failed to conquer this part of Britain, they left a profound and lasting impact. The raw material of Rome’s empire – frozen in time on a Scottish hill – became the foundation for the prestigious society and early medieval culture that would eventually lead to the birth of Scotland.

Join Tristan Hughes and Dr Fraser Hunter to uncover the true significance of the Traprain Treasure and witness the birth of a nation in Scotland’s Roman Hoard: The Traprain Treasure.

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In a new documentary, Enemies of Rome: In Search of the Picts, Tristan Hughes travels across Scotland to go beyond the myths and uncover the truth. He meets the experts, explores the latest discoveries, and investigates how these enigmatic people lived, thrived, and ultimately vanished.

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Beyond the Wall

The Roman Empire’s northern frontier was marked by Hadrian’s Wall, a towering fortification that the Romans believed was the very edge of civilisation. Beyond it, in the wild and untamed lands of what is now Scotland, lived the Picts – a name likely derived from the Latin Picti, or “painted people.”

While Roman sources dismissed them as “barbarians,” they were a people who resisted conquest, even pushing back against Rome’s most ambitious attempts to expand north. The Romans built the Antonine Wall 100 miles north of Hadrian’s Wall, but it was ultimately a failure. By the 3rd century, the Picts emerged free of Roman control, their formidable resistance a testament to their strength and organisation.

But with no written records of their own, we’ve long had a one-sided view of them. So who were they? The programme takes us to the heartland of Pictish territory, modern-day Aberdeenshire, to a newly excavated hill fort called Tap O’Noth. What archaeologists have found there is a “real revolution” in our understanding of Pictish society. The site was once a massive settlement with hundreds of house platforms, proving that these people were far more organised and lived on a scale previously thought impossible for the period.

Survival and creativity

With so few surviving written records, archaeology is our only real window into the Picts’ world. The discoveries reveal people who were not just surviving in a rugged landscape, but were also thriving. We see tools for agriculture, evidence of craftsmanship, and even objects that hint at a life of leisure, like gaming pieces influenced by the Roman Empire.

The Picts were masters of their environment, creating essential tools like the coracle – a small, woven willow-framed boat covered in oxhide – that allowed them to navigate their unforgiving world. But they also brought colour into their lives.

Tristan Hughes (left) is given a crash-course in Pictish daily life with Historical Leatherwork Specialist, Hamish Lamley (right), who makes Tristan dress the part, and teaches him how to build a coracle (‘currach’) – a small boat, typical of what was being used throughout this period.

Image Credit: History Hit

Contrary to the common myth of blue-painted warriors, new research suggests a different story. The name Picti may refer to body paint made from red hematite iron ore, a pigment found on Scottish beaches. 

As Tristan learns from Caroline Nicolay, an Experiential Archaeologist, the Roman historian Caesar’s texts were likely mistranslated, and the “blue” we associate with the Picts may have been a reference to the translucent colour of glass rather than the dye woad. This sheds a new light on how we should envision these formidable people charging into battle.

These discoveries are a powerful reminder that the real story of the Picts is far more complex than the Roman portrayal of them as savage warriors. Their daily lives weren’t just about fighting off Roman invasions; they had time for creativity, artistry, and a vibrant cultural life.

Tristan Hughes talks to Caroline Nicolay, an Experiential Archaeologist, about the vibrant pigments the Picts may have used, such as hematite, found on many Scottish beaches.

Image Credit: History Hit

Silver, symbols, and a shifting identity

The Picts also left behind some of the finest silver objects from anywhere in the early medieval world. Tristan heads to the National Museum of Scotland to meet Dr Martin Goldberg, Principal Curator, where he’s given special access to examine the Norrie’s Law hoard up-close, a massive collection of Late Roman and Pictish silver from the 6th century discovered in 1819 in Fife.

These treasures reveal a fascinating truth: the Picts didn’t just resist Rome; they traded with them, acquiring and repurposing precious Roman silver into distinctly their own works of art. These artefacts – including massive silver chains that were likely worn by powerful women or adolescents – were not just symbols of wealth, but a form of “proto-currency” and communication that showed what truly mattered to them.

Tristan Hughes at the National Museum of Scotland viewing items from the Norrie’s Law hoard, a massive 6th-century Pictish silver hoard discovered in 1819 in Fife, Scotland.

Image Credit: National Museum of Scotland / History Hit

Perhaps the Picts’ most enduring legacy is their enigmatic carved stones. Found across Scotland, these monuments are covered in striking, mysterious symbols that have puzzled historians for centuries. One particular hotspot is the village of Aberlemno in Angus, where Tristan views several carved Pictish stones and discusses their meaning with Historian and Heritage Stone-carver David McGovern.

While their exact meaning remains unknown, David suggests the symbols were likely so ingrained in Pictish culture that their meaning was widely understood. The fact that the symbols endured for so long and are found across a large territory indicates they were a powerful form of communication. This, combined with their frequent appearance in pairs, leads him to believe the carvings are “something to do with tribes, families, dynasties… alliances”, serving as a testament to the Picts’ sophisticated belief system and unique identity.

One of the Aberlemno Pictish Stones in Scotland

Image Credit: Fulcanelli / Shutterstock.com

The ultimate mystery, however, is what happened to them? As Tristan uncovers, Pictish identity didn’t disappear, but evolved. The arrival of Christianity saw their ancient traditions blend with a new faith, creating something entirely their own. But by the 10th century, as new powers rose, the Picts vanished from the historical record, being gradually absorbed into the emerging kingdom of Alba, the foundation of modern Scotland.

The great enigma of the Picts has ensured that the Roman, damning portrayal of them as barbaric has stuck for centuries. But now, thanks to archaeology, that myth is falling away, revealing a people who were fiercely independent, highly skilled, and profoundly human.

Join Tristan Hughes on a journey to find the real people behind the myths in Enemies of Rome: In Search of the Picts.

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Now, with exclusive access to this astonishing find, Tristan Hughes embarks on an investigation to uncover the hoard’s secrets. In History Hit’s new documentary, The Melsonby Hoard, he explores what this extraordinary discovery reveals about a part of ancient Britain often overshadowed by the South. From intricate chariot fittings and ornate horse harnesses to a mass of fused metalwork, this is a once-in-a-generation discovery that is rewriting the story of the Iron Age.

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A hoard that helps rewrite history

In December 2021, a metal detectorist made the discovery of a lifetime on the outskirts of Melsonby, Yorkshire. Buried in two separate deposits, this colossal hoard was filled with a diverse array of items: chariot parts, horse gear, spears, and even large bronze cauldrons. This wasn’t just a collection of objects; it was a snapshot of a moment in time, a ritual offering left behind just before the Roman conquest. And its existence is reshaping what archaeologists thought they knew about Iron Age Britain.

The find was made close to the Stanwick Iron Age Fortifications, a major power centre in northern Britain during the late Iron Age. In the programme, Tristan meets with Professor Tom Moore, Head of Archaeology at Durham University, who explains that Stanwick was likely the key power centre for the Brigantes, a confederacy of peoples mentioned in Roman histories.

Tristan Hughes discusses the Melsonby Hoard with Professor Tom Moore, Head of Archaeology at Durham University

Image Credit: History Hit

The sheer quantity and quality of the Melsonby artefacts suggest a level of wealth and sophistication previously thought to be exclusive to the south of England – proving that northern Britain was home to equally powerful and well-connected societies, with long-distance trade networks stretching as far as the Mediterranean.

A deliberate act

Why would someone bury such a staggering collection of objects? As Professor Moore reveals, the hoards were deliberately placed in two separate trenches, with many objects intentionally broken and even smashed with boulders. This wasn’t a hidden stash meant to be recovered later; it was a symbolic act, a ritual deposit.

The absence of any personal adornments or human remains makes this find particularly unique. Instead, the hoard contains ceremonial feasting items, like cauldrons, and military gear. Among the most exciting finds are iron tyres from four-wheeled wagons, the first indication that these types of vehicles were used in Britain. These objects weren’t all owned by a single person; instead, they represent a communal offering, a powerful statement of wealth and unity.

The dating of the hoard – to the early 1st century AD, just before the Roman arrival – suggests it may be related to the period before the reign of the powerful Queen Cartimandua. Professor Moore explains that it’s possible the hoard is connected to another, equally powerful female ruler, offering a tantalising new layer to our understanding of Iron Age society, and how, as he explains, “female rulers were probably quite common”.

The mysteries of the ‘block’

The Melsonby hoard includes what archaeologists call “the block” – a 250kg mass of Iron Age metalwork. Tristan meets Dr Emily Williams, an archaeological conservator at Durham University, who explains how this unique find was carefully excavated and is now undergoing vital conservation work.

The ‘Block’ – part of the Melsonby Hoard

A CT scan of the block has revealed more secrets, showing that it contains many of the same types of objects as the main deposit, including spears. Intriguingly, it’s also believed to contain Roman pilums – spears. The team hopes to keep the block intact, rather than dismantling it, preserving its secrets for future generations to study.

A game-changer on a cliff edge

Dr Keith Emerick, an Inspector of Ancient Monuments for Historic England, describes the Melsonby hoard as “spectacular and unusual,” and “a game-changer” for our understanding of the Iron Age. The sheer scale and research potential of the find is unlike anything he has ever seen.

Tristan Hughes with Dr Keith Emerick, Inspector of Ancient Monuments for Historic England inspect some of the Melsonby Hoard

However, the fate of the Melsonby Hoard hangs in the balance.

Tristan visits the Yorkshire Museum, where a small fraction of the hoard is on display for the first time. Emily North, Curator of Archaeology at the museum explains how the museum is currently undertaking a monumental fundraising effort to acquire the entire hoard for the nation. If successful, the hoard will become the property of the people of Yorkshire and Britain forever, ensuring it remains a single collection for vital conservation and research. Without these funds, there is a risk that individual pieces could be sold off to private collectors, scattering the collection and its secrets.

“Legally it’s treasure, but it’s a real treasure in terms of the secrets that it holds” explains Emily. As Tristan notes, this incredible discovery is reshaping our understanding of the Iron Age, and it’s vital that it can be kept together so that its story – the story of a buried kingdom and a lost people – can be told in full.

Join Tristan Hughes in a special documentary as he gets up close with this unprecedented discovery and uncovers the full story of The Melsonby Hoard.

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In the second film in an exciting new partnership between History Hit and one of the world’s oldest and finest public museums, the University of Oxford’s Ashmolean Museum, Professor Suzannah Lipscomb journeys behind the scenes to uncover the fascinating world of Mesopotamian demons. Guided by curator Dr Nancy Highcock, Suzannah explores how ancient people sought protection in a world where the supernatural was woven into the fabric of everyday life in The Ashmolean Up Close: Demons of Mesopotamia.

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A world infused with the supernatural

Mesopotamia, meaning the land “between two rivers”, stretches across the Middle East in the historical region located in the fertile crescent between the Euphrates and the Tigres rivers (today it now largely encompasses modern-day Iraq and parts of Iran, Syria, Kuwait, and Turkey). It was home to many of the earliest civilizations, including the Assyrians. For these people, the line between the natural and supernatural was practically non-existent.

As Dr Highcock explains, “In Mesopotamia, the supernatural were all around us.” People believed malevolent demons and ghosts were ever-present, causing illnesses and other misfortunes, making it vital to keep one’s ancestors happy and ward of evil spirits. In such a volatile world, images held real power, and every doorway, window, and even the corner of a room was a potential entry point for evil forces.

To protect themselves and feel a sense of control, they created a remarkable array of objects to harness and control these forces. The programme begins with a powerful testament to this belief: a colossal relief of a protective spirit called an Abkalu. With the body of a man and the head of an eagle, this 9th-century BC relief once guarded a palace entrance. Suzannah and Dr Highcock examine the intricate details of the figure, which holds a sacred purifying tool in one hand, designed to ward off evil from the king’s throne room.

Dr Nancy Highcock (left) and Professor Suzannah Lipscombe (right) look at some of the Ancient Mesopotamian demons in the Ashmolean Museum’s collection.

Image Credit: History Hit

Harnessing demonic power

Protection wasn’t just for the elite. The programme offers a close look at smaller, more personal artefacts used by ordinary people, including a small clay head of a demon ‘Humbaba’. Dating from around 2,000 BC, this mask-like figure is recognisable from one of the oldest known works of literature, The Epic of Gilgamesh. Suzannah learns this tiny clay head was likely used as a protective charm hung on a household doorway, a way for everyday people to contain the power and violence of the demon.

Next, Suzannah examines an amulet designed to protect women and children. The amulet depicts a female demon ‘Lamashtu’, who was blamed for infant deaths and miscarriages. As Dr Highcock reveals, the Mesopotamians believed they could fight fire with fire. By capturing the image of a demon, miniaturising it, and putting it on an amulet, they could harness its power against itself. 

Amulet depicting a terrifying female demon named Lamashtu.

Even the demons had their enemies. Suzannah is shown another finely carved amulet, this one depicting the wind god Pazuzu, a formidable monster with a powerful physique. Pazuzu was considered an antagonist to Lamashtu and was specifically used to fight off the child-murdering demon.

The amulet, inscribed in the first person (“I am Pazuzu…”), speaks to a culture where an image wasn’t just a representation; it was imbued with the power of the being itself. The inscription may have even been read aloud during critical moments, such as childbirth, to invoke the demon’s protective power.

Divine dogs and a battle for control

With the constant battle between supernatural forces, humans sought to align themselves with protective beings to gain a sense of control. The programme features another fascinating example of this practice: small clay dogs found at the ancient site of Kish. These dogs, buried at doorways or placed under thresholds, were given powerful names like “Destroyer of Life” and “Biter of the Enemy.” They were believed to actively ward off evil spirits, offering a tangible defence against an otherwise invisible threat.

These astonishing objects from The Ashmolean Museum’s collection offer a unique window into the ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia. They reveal a world where divine and demonic forces shaped daily life, and where people – from rulers to ordinary citizens – sought protection and peace in a volatile existence. Though these empires may have fallen long ago, through these enduring artefacts, their people and beliefs still speak to us today.

Join Professor Suzannah Lipscomb and Dr Nancy Highcock as they reveal the hidden, magical world of Mesopotamian demons in the new episode of The Ashmolean Up Close: Demons of Mesopotamia.

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