Founded by Greek colonists 2,500 years ago, Paestum is a living testament to a vibrant, untold chapter of the ancient Mediterranean. Originally named Poseidonia, after the Greek god of the sea, the city was one of over 50 Greek settlements established along the Italian coastline – a region that became known as Magna Grecia (‘Greater Greece’). The settlers brought their rich culture, thriving on the fertile agricultural soils and lucrative trade routes, leaving an indelible mark in southern Italy well before the rise of Rome.

In History Hit’s new documentary, Paestum: A Tale of Three Cities, Tristan explores the magnificent ruins, revealing how three incredible civilisations – the Greeks, the native Italian Lucanians, and the mighty Romans – collided in this single, extraordinary location. 

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Here, we focus on the city’s foundational Greek age, deciphering the art and architecture the Greeks left behind.

The colossal temples: a pinnacle of Greek grandeur

Paestum boasts three of the best-preserved, colossal ancient Greek temples in the world, monuments that rival anything found in Greece itself. Tristan focuses on the Temple of Neptune, which he rates as one of the best-preserved ancient Greek temples in the world. Standing over 10 metres tall and built decades before the famous Parthenon, it is the pinnacle of the Greek Doric style, instantly commanding awe with its long, fluted columns.

Inside the Temple of Neptune, Paestum, Southern Italy.

This documentary takes you inside the temple’s sacred heart and challenges assumptions about its dedication. While early archaeologists assumed the most monumental temple belonged to Poseidon, Director Dr Tiziana D’Angelo explains that evidence now points towards the goddess Hera or perhaps Apollo.

The temples also reveal a surprising truth of ancient ritual: most of the sacred ceremonies took place outside by the altar, rather than within the god’s house.

Paestum, Southern Italy

Image Credit: History Hit

The treasure of the Tomb of the Diver

The artistic legacy of Greek Paestum is revealed in one of its greatest treasures: the Tomb of the Diver. Discovered in 1968, this is one of the only surviving examples of a complete Greek wall painting from the early 5th century BC anywhere in the world.

In the documentary, Tristan and Tiziana discuss the symbolic meaning of this breathtaking fresco, which contains a central figure, diving into water – is it a metaphor for the passage from life to the afterlife, or a realistic scene of daily life? The other frescoes depict scenes of classical Greek life, including symposiums (Greek drinking parties) – scenes instantly recognisable to Greeks across the Mediterranean. This astonishing find proves that the Greek cultural zenith was not confined to Athens, but flourished with equal brilliance here in Southern Italy.

The Tomb of the Diver, Paestum, Southern Italy

Image Credit: History Hit

The collision of cultures

The documentary continues its journey by exploring the subsequent periods that defined the city, showcasing dramatic shifts in power and culture:

• The Lucanians – warriors and cultural fusion: Two centuries after its foundation, native Italian tribes, the Lucanians, took over the city. While some bitter Greek sources labeled them “barbarians,” you’ll see the reality was far more complex: far from destroying Greek culture, the Lucanians deeply admired it. They transformed the city’s art to feature vivid scenes of warriors and military prowess, creating a profound cultural fusion that incorporated Greek styles.
• The Roman conquest: Control shifted again in 275 BC. The Lucanians – having unwisely allied with the Greek warlord Pyrrhus against Rome – lost their protector and the city was conquered. The Romans were swift to establish authority, building the Forum as a new political and urban centre. Yet, while replacing many Greek structures, the Romans allowed the magnificent temples to stand, underscoring their enduring respect for Paestum’s Greek origins and ensuring the city’s foundational culture survived.

Tristan and Dr Tiziana D’Angelo stand beside a Lucanian artwork depicting chariot racing.

Image Credit: History Hit

As Tristan points out, Paestum fundamentally challenges the perception that ancient Italy was exclusively Roman, demonstrating instead that Rome existed alongside a vast array of extraordinary civilizations. As the site epitomises the dramatic collision of Greek, Lucanian, and Roman cultures, it reveals the rich, often overshadowed, histories of people who left behind some of the most beautiful wonders of the ancient world.

Join Tristan Hughes as he explores these layers of history, uncovering how three civilisations converged at this single, extraordinary site. Watch Paestum: A Tale of Three Cities to discover the art, politics, and power of the Mediterranean’s hidden gem.

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After years of civil war and instability, History Hit has gained unique access as the first documentary team in 15 years to film in the rarely seen extraordinary ancient sites within Cyrenaica, centred around one of the greatest cities of the ancient world, Cyrene – a vibrant and important part of the Greek and Roman world. 

This is a fascinating journey into a spectacular region where documentaries rarely go. From the majestic monumental Greek cities to active archaeology being revealed right before our eyes on the coast, this film celebrates the beauty, significance, and untold history of one of the ancient Mediterranean’s most powerful regions. Prepare for a film like no other, promising unprecedented access and a view of ancient history you’ve never seen.

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The coastal city emerging from the waves

Most modern understanding of Libya is framed by the era of Colonel Gaddafi and the subsequent civil war. However, Dan’s journey travels back 2,000 years and beyond to Cyrenaica, a fertile strip of land in northeastern Libya that was once the breadbasket and powerhouse of the ancient Mediterranean. As Dan explains, “Very few news crews, let alone history documentary-makers get to come here.” 

Dan’s journey begins at the bay of Al Haniyah on the Mediterranean coast, where a fascinating archaeology project is rediscovering a long-lost coastal city, revealing its secrets thanks to natural coastal erosion. Working with teams from the University of Ulster and the University of Benghazi, Dan witnesses fascinating, active archaeology in progress that is disclosing the people who lived here two millennia ago. 

Dan Snow sees how objects embedded in the cliffs are being exposed due to coastal erosion.

Image Credit: History Hit

“Ancient objects are literally falling out of the cliffs,” Dan notes, as the intense winter storms of North Africa claw away at the cliff face, exposing layers of history spanning over 1,000 years. The erosion is a race against time, but offers a unique, exposed cross-section of an ancient port. Dan and the lead archaeologist, Dr. Julia Nikolaus, even discover human bones that have fallen out of a burial, a visceral reminder that the waves of the Mediterranean are exposing all aspects of daily life and death at Al Haniyah.

Along with hundreds of pottery shards, monumental buildings – including the remains of a temple and a Roman villa – are emerging, along with remaining patches of mosaic floors. This seemingly obscure town, which left little impression in the history books, is transforming our understanding of trade, proving it was a crucial hub for exporting goods like wine and Cyrenaican oil – once described as the oil of the ancient world.

Dan Snow with lead archaeologist Dr Julia Nikolaus – they are pointing at a blocked-up doorway or window emerging from the cliffs

Image Credit: History Hit

Dan even joins a team conducting an underwater survey that is uncovering columns and signs of an ancient harbour beneath the waves, proving that a “new chapter in the story of Cyrenaica is being recorded right here.”

We can imagine merchant ships anchored offshore; crews calling out as heavy amphorae were loaded; traders bargaining in the shade of warehouses; families strolling along the harbour-front. For centuries, this place supported busy routines of work, travel, and exchange.

The wonder of Cyrene: A claim to power

Heading inland, Dan travels up into the fertile mountains, site of the magnificent city of Cyrene, which was a wonder of the ancient Graeco-Roman world and a profound statement of Greek identity. It is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site. 

Dan’s excitement of exploring here is palpable. “I’ve dreamed of coming here all my life” says Dan. “We’ve been told that we’re (History Hit) are the first television crew to come and film here since the fall of Gaddafi. And as a result we have the whole place to ourselves – it feels almost like  we’re discovering it for the first time”. 

The Gymnasium at Cyrene, Libya, with the small theatre visible in the background.

Image Credit: History Hit

Cyrene’s grand architecture – including the colossal Greek gymnasium, a centre of learning and physical fitness lined with Doric columns – was designed to proclaim that visitors were entering the Greek world. Its origins, revealed in ancient writings by Herodotus, were humble: struggling Greek colonists were shown the fertile land by indigenous Libyans. Dan also explores a splendid house complete with an outdoor Hall of the Muses, where rich guests would enjoy music and poetry beneath a warm North African sky.  

The city’s immense wealth stemmed from one unique cash crop: Silphium. This legendary plant, which no longer exists, was literally worth its weight in gold due to its supposed healing properties. Dan visits the marketplace where this invaluable commodity was traded, a trade so vital it was thought to be protected by the goddess of agriculture, Demeter. Silphium was transported from Cyrene down to the coast, and then exported to the wealthy centres of the ancient Mediterranean, from Alexandria to Athens and Rome. 

Cyrene also exported knowledge. It was the home of the philosopher Aristippus, who founded the hedonistic school of thought focused on pleasure, and his daughter Arete, believed to be the first female philosopher in history.

The Sanctuary of Apollo in Cyrene, Libya

Image Credit: History Hit

In a unique fusion of storytelling and innovation, History Hit’s film collaborates with Ubisoft to recreate lost parts of the ancient city of Cyrene using stunning imagery from Assassin’s Creed Origins. This allows us to picture what it would have been like to walk these very streets and visit Cyrene’s magnificent theatre, temples and sacred places (including the Temple of Apollo and the spring of Apollo) over 2,000 years ago.

From Greek gymnasium to Roman arena

Dan charts Cyrene’s evolving identity after the Romans took over in 96 BC due to dynastic squabbles in Ptolemaic Egypt, when they transformed the city to better express their Roman-ness. The massive Greek theatre was converted into a Roman amphitheatre, trading the stage for the arena and gladiatorial shows. People from here continued to feature in accounts of the Roman world, men like Simon of Cyrene who the New Testament says helped to carry Jesus’ cross to his crucifixion. 

Dan concludes his journey at the harbour city of Apollonia, which ultimately would overshadow Cyrene. Here, the final transition of the ancient world is visible: the ruins of a Christian basilica, built largely from the recycled plinths and inscriptions of dismantled Roman temples. This basilica reflects the shift to the Byzantine era, proving that the legacy of those ancient civilizations can be explored just as profoundly in Northern Africa as in Athens or Rome.

Components of the ancient temple in Apollonia were rearranged by the Byzantines to create a space for Christian worship.

Image Credit: History Hit

A mainstay of the ancient world

As Dan concludes, the sites in Libya are on the same monumental scale as the Parthenon in Athens. They make a powerful claim: the Cyrenians were not some peripheral colonial outpost; they were one of the mainstays of the ancient world. As Dan reflects,

It’s easy to forget that the Mediterranean Sea was the centre of the Ancient world. You don’t need to go to Athens or Rome… you can explore them all in Northern Africa. It has been an eye-opening experience.”

History Hit’s Head of Programming, Bill Locke, reflects on the team’s experience in Libya:

“Filming in Libya was an extraordinary experience – seeing ancient Greek pottery emerging from the cliffs in a previously untouched site by the Mediterranean, and walking through the wonders of Cyrene, the first documentary crew to film there since the fall of Gaddafi.”

We’ll be speaking to Bill in more depth soon where we’ll delve deeper to learn more about the team’s fascinating and exclusive experiences filming in a spectacular region where documentaries rarely go.

Join Dan Snow for an unprecedented look at the treasures of North Africa in Ancient Adventures: Libya.

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In a special film from 2022, Tutankhamun: A Century of Discovery, historian Dan Snow commemorated the centenary of that historic event, retracing the incredible story of dedication, despair, and dazzling triumph. Walking in the footsteps of Howard Carter, in the film Dan explores the key sites and exclusive archives that reveal the human story behind the golden mask.

The History Hit team gained unprecedented access to key locations associated with this legendary story: Highclere Castle (home of Lord Carnarvon), Tutankhamun’s Tomb in the Valley of the Kings, and the vast Howard Carter archives in Oxford, which hold the secrets of the dig. 

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A needle in a haystack

To understand the discovery, Dan first travels to the Valley of the Kings, the deep gorge in the desert where the pharaohs sought their ultimate rest. Guarded by pyramid-like peaks, this was the land of the dead, set directly across the Nile and close to Thebes (modern-day Luxor).

The film explores the profound commitment of Howard Carter, whose ambition was so singular he built a functional, almost hermitic house as close to the Valley of the Kings as possible. Dan visits the meticulously conserved house and speaks with architectural historian Dr Nicholas Warner, revealing Carter’s intense focus. For 12 agonising years, Carter found nothing. As Dr Warner reveals, 1922 was meant to be the final season funded by his great sponsor, Lord Carnarvon. Carter was completely convinced a missing tomb belonging to the obscure New Kingdom pharaoh Tutankhamun was there, but he needed to be convincing enough to keep his patron on board – a true needle-in-a-haystack quest.

Dan also travels to Highclere Castle in Hampshire, Lord Carnarvon’s home, to meet Fiona, the Countess of Carnarvon. She discusses the immense faith Carnarvon placed in Carter – a quest that cost the equivalent of £20 million in modern terms – and the shared love of Egyptology that bound the two men together.

Howard Carter, Lord Carnarvon and his daughter Lady Evelyn Herbert at the steps leading to the newly discovered tomb of Tutankhamen, November 1922

Image Credit: Harry Burton (Photographer), Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

The archive

The most intimate details of the discovery are held not in Egypt, but in Oxford. Dan travels to the Bodleian Weston Library to explore the exhibition ‘Tutankhamun – Excavating the Archives’, home to Howard Carter’s extensive records.

Dan gets up close to Carter’s first hurried journal entry: “First steps of Tomb Found.” This led to a detailed note: “Discovered tomb under tomb of Ramses VI… found seals intact.” This meant the tomb was likely an undisturbed Egyptian royal resting place. Carter was forced to wait for his financier, Carnarvon, to sail from England before breaching the final seal.

The iconic moment occurred on 26 November 1922. Dan reads Carter’s account from his excavation journal, reliving the moment the archaeologist first gazed into the dark vault. When Carnarvon asked what he saw, Carter famously replied: “It is wonderful.”

Along with curator Daniela Rosenow at the Griffith Institute, Dan also examines the original glass plate negatives. These photos are extraordinary, capturing now-familiar objects still covered in the linen and flowers from the 19-year-old pharaoh’s funeral in 1323 BC, a far more immediate and human image than the conserved treasures we see today.

Howard Carter examining the innermost coffin of Tutankhamun

Image Credit: Exclusive to The Times, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

The young king

Later in the programme, Dan travels into Tutankhamun’s tomb itself, describing it as “one of the most exciting places on earth.” Egyptologist Aliaa Ismail explains a profound irony: Tutankhamun died very young, so his tomb’s walls were left plain in the antechamber, reflecting the custom that “the longer you live, the more impressive your tomb.”

Yet, behind the wall lay the sealed and untouched burial chamber, revealing riches beyond measure. The photographs held in Oxford show what happened in the final moments of the burial: Carter’s notes detail how the team had to chop off part of the pharaoh’s feet to fit the coffin into the sarcophagus – a startling reminder of the human element in an otherwise divine ritual.

To mark the centenary, a local Oxford florist recreated one of the floral garlands found on Tutankhamun’s mummy. Dan gets a first glimpse of this meticulous recreation, which, as Professor Richard Parkinson explains, helps humanise the story. As Richard points out, the centenary is not just about gold, but “about the death of a young man.”

Immortality and legacy

Dan concludes the film back in Cairo, by being up close with Tutankhamun’s golden death mask, which he describes as “one of the most famous archaeological treasures ever recovered”: He explores some of the original treasures with conservator Eid Mertah, who uses modern techniques to understand how the treasures were made.

The legacy of Tutankhamun is a story of dedication, risk, and ultimate triumph. Howard Carter’s single-minded pursuit, Lord Carnarvon’s unwavering financial faith, and the detailed record-keeping in Oxford have ensured the pharaoh’s memory lives on. As Dan concludes, while Tutankhamun didn’t get to “rest” in the Valley of the Kings, he achieved a different form of immortality: his legacy is an inspiration for all generations.

Join Dan Snow as he walks in the footsteps of Howard Carter to relive the greatest archaeological discovery of all time in Tutankhamun: A Century of Discovery.

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Discover more of History Hit’s Egyptology collection

In History Hit’s new documentary, Scotland’s Roman Hoard: The Traprain Treasure, Tristan Hughes is granted exclusive access to the National Museum of Scotland to examine these incredible artefacts up close. Guided by leading expert Dr Fraser Hunter, Principal Curator of The National Museum of Scotland, Tristan delves into the hoard’s mysterious origins, uncovering what this treasure reveals about trade and power games at the far edges of the Roman Empire, and the true birth of medieval Scotland.

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The treasure of the ‘Barbarians’

The discovery of the Traprain Treasure is unique because it was found far outside the formal boundaries of the Roman Empire, and buried at a time when Roman Britain had receded some considerable distance to the south and was collapsing (around 450 AD). The Romans had never managed to hold onto land beyond Hadrian’s Wall long-term; further north above modern-day Edinburgh tribal groups would ultimately unite and become the Picts, who fiercely resisted Roman control.

Caught up between these powers were the Votadini, a formidable people who lived in the buffer state beyond Hadrian’s Wall. Traprain Law, east of modern-day Edinburgh, rises out of the East Lothian plain and was a major power centre for them. While the Romans called them ‘Barbarians,’ the Votadini used their strategic position to their advantage, maintaining a rewarding alliance with Rome without succumbing to its rule.

Dr Fraser Hunter describes the hoard as “one of the most remarkable finds of late-Roman silver from anywhere in the empire or beyond,” emphasising that this is a story about the powerful communities beyond the frontier, not the Romans within it.

Tristan Hughes (left) with Dr Fraser Hunter (right), Principal Curator at The National Museum of Scotland. In front of them lies some of the objects from the Traprain Treasure.

The discovery

Excavations of the site had begun in 1914, led by Alexander Curle, the former director of the Royal Scottish Museum in Edinburgh. On 12 May 1919, workmen were clearing one of the levels with a pick-axe when foreman George Pringle discovered a silver vessel. 

The treasure did not emerge pristine. It was largely found as “hack silver” – flattened, broken, and fragmented pieces. Early restorers pieced them back together, but the fragments hold a critical secret. The silver is incredibly pure (93-95%), giving it immense value, not just as art, but as a raw material. As Tristan and Fraser reveal, the meticulous way the silver was chopped into precise, weight-standardised fragments suggests this wasn’t the haphazard destruction of “barbarians,” but a careful act performed perhaps within the Roman world during a time of economic crisis.

A world in transition: Paganism and Christianity

The objects themselves speak to a world in transition, showcasing the elite culture and rising anxieties of the late Roman Empire. In the documentary, Tristan examines a beautifully preserved bowl, once a high-status washbasin for elite women, adorned with magnificent pagan imagery including a sea nereid nymph riding a sea panther. Other fragments depict the mythological hero Hercules, reflecting the classical culture of elite Roman dining.

Yet, the hoard also contains the earliest Christian item found in Scotland: a gilded silver vessel featuring detailed scenes from both the Old and New Testaments. This impressive piece of early Christian iconography, complete with Adam and Eve, and the Virgin Mary receiving the Three Wise Men, powerfully illustrates how a new religion was taking hold. This mix of pagan and Christian items in a single hoard reflects the contested, turbulent world of late antiquity.

Depiction of the Virgin Mary receiving the Three Wise Men on silver vessel from the Traprain Treasure.

Image Credit: History Hit / National Museum of Scotland

Mercenaries, money, and power games

How did so much Roman silver – over 250 objects weighing 23kg – end up buried on a Scottish hill?

The treasures came north over a long period, likely spanning a century or more, linking Traprain to the military and political turmoil of the collapsing Empire. Fraser explains that the Votadini were Rome’s eyes and ears in the North, and the silver often came north as mercenary pay or diplomatic gifts. As he puts it, “a chunk of this material is likely to be effectively their pay packets.”

In the documentary, Tristan examines silver coins from the hoard that have been deliberately clipped around the edges – according to Fraser this was a particularly British habit after the official flow of coinage ceased around 410 AD. This act of clipping silver to pay people by weight offers a clear indication of the hoard’s dating (featuring Emperors Valens and Theodosius, and Honorius) and its use in a post-Roman economy.

Far from being ‘chopped up by Barbarians’, the precision cuts and adhering to Roman weight standards suggest the silver fragments were meticulously prepared, possibly even within the Roman world during a time of economic crisis, where the material’s raw value for transport or trade was prioritised over its artistic form.

Pieces of cut silver from the Traprain Treasure

Image Credit: History Hit / National Museum of Scotland

Brought in from the Roman world as diplomatic gifts, subsidies, and mercenary payments, silver quickly became a powerful symbol of status and influence in local society. Had it not been frozen in time by burial, it would have been recycled and refashioned into magnificent brooches, chains, and rings – new status items essential for asserting influence in local society. Fraser shows Tristan a large silver military buckle decorated with the Christian Alpha and Omega symbols, indicating that some of these “swords for hire” were Christians themselves.

The Traprain Treasure proves that while the Romans failed to conquer this part of Britain, they left a profound and lasting impact. The raw material of Rome’s empire – frozen in time on a Scottish hill – became the foundation for the prestigious society and early medieval culture that would eventually lead to the birth of Scotland.

Join Tristan Hughes and Dr Fraser Hunter to uncover the true significance of the Traprain Treasure and witness the birth of a nation in Scotland’s Roman Hoard: The Traprain Treasure.

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In a new documentary, Enemies of Rome: In Search of the Picts, Tristan Hughes travels across Scotland to go beyond the myths and uncover the truth. He meets the experts, explores the latest discoveries, and investigates how these enigmatic people lived, thrived, and ultimately vanished.

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Beyond the Wall

The Roman Empire’s northern frontier was marked by Hadrian’s Wall, a towering fortification that the Romans believed was the very edge of civilisation. Beyond it, in the wild and untamed lands of what is now Scotland, lived the Picts – a name likely derived from the Latin Picti, or “painted people.”

While Roman sources dismissed them as “barbarians,” they were a people who resisted conquest, even pushing back against Rome’s most ambitious attempts to expand north. The Romans built the Antonine Wall 100 miles north of Hadrian’s Wall, but it was ultimately a failure. By the 3rd century, the Picts emerged free of Roman control, their formidable resistance a testament to their strength and organisation.

But with no written records of their own, we’ve long had a one-sided view of them. So who were they? The programme takes us to the heartland of Pictish territory, modern-day Aberdeenshire, to a newly excavated hill fort called Tap O’Noth. What archaeologists have found there is a “real revolution” in our understanding of Pictish society. The site was once a massive settlement with hundreds of house platforms, proving that these people were far more organised and lived on a scale previously thought impossible for the period.

Survival and creativity

With so few surviving written records, archaeology is our only real window into the Picts’ world. The discoveries reveal people who were not just surviving in a rugged landscape, but were also thriving. We see tools for agriculture, evidence of craftsmanship, and even objects that hint at a life of leisure, like gaming pieces influenced by the Roman Empire.

The Picts were masters of their environment, creating essential tools like the coracle – a small, woven willow-framed boat covered in oxhide – that allowed them to navigate their unforgiving world. But they also brought colour into their lives.

Tristan Hughes (left) is given a crash-course in Pictish daily life with Historical Leatherwork Specialist, Hamish Lamley (right), who makes Tristan dress the part, and teaches him how to build a coracle (‘currach’) – a small boat, typical of what was being used throughout this period.

Image Credit: History Hit

Contrary to the common myth of blue-painted warriors, new research suggests a different story. The name Picti may refer to body paint made from red hematite iron ore, a pigment found on Scottish beaches. 

As Tristan learns from Caroline Nicolay, an Experiential Archaeologist, the Roman historian Caesar’s texts were likely mistranslated, and the “blue” we associate with the Picts may have been a reference to the translucent colour of glass rather than the dye woad. This sheds a new light on how we should envision these formidable people charging into battle.

These discoveries are a powerful reminder that the real story of the Picts is far more complex than the Roman portrayal of them as savage warriors. Their daily lives weren’t just about fighting off Roman invasions; they had time for creativity, artistry, and a vibrant cultural life.

Tristan Hughes talks to Caroline Nicolay, an Experiential Archaeologist, about the vibrant pigments the Picts may have used, such as hematite, found on many Scottish beaches.

Image Credit: History Hit

Silver, symbols, and a shifting identity

The Picts also left behind some of the finest silver objects from anywhere in the early medieval world. Tristan heads to the National Museum of Scotland to meet Dr Martin Goldberg, Principal Curator, where he’s given special access to examine the Norrie’s Law hoard up-close, a massive collection of Late Roman and Pictish silver from the 6th century discovered in 1819 in Fife.

These treasures reveal a fascinating truth: the Picts didn’t just resist Rome; they traded with them, acquiring and repurposing precious Roman silver into distinctly their own works of art. These artefacts – including massive silver chains that were likely worn by powerful women or adolescents – were not just symbols of wealth, but a form of “proto-currency” and communication that showed what truly mattered to them.

Tristan Hughes at the National Museum of Scotland viewing items from the Norrie’s Law hoard, a massive 6th-century Pictish silver hoard discovered in 1819 in Fife, Scotland.

Image Credit: National Museum of Scotland / History Hit

Perhaps the Picts’ most enduring legacy is their enigmatic carved stones. Found across Scotland, these monuments are covered in striking, mysterious symbols that have puzzled historians for centuries. One particular hotspot is the village of Aberlemno in Angus, where Tristan views several carved Pictish stones and discusses their meaning with Historian and Heritage Stone-carver David McGovern.

While their exact meaning remains unknown, David suggests the symbols were likely so ingrained in Pictish culture that their meaning was widely understood. The fact that the symbols endured for so long and are found across a large territory indicates they were a powerful form of communication. This, combined with their frequent appearance in pairs, leads him to believe the carvings are “something to do with tribes, families, dynasties… alliances”, serving as a testament to the Picts’ sophisticated belief system and unique identity.

One of the Aberlemno Pictish Stones in Scotland

Image Credit: Fulcanelli / Shutterstock.com

The ultimate mystery, however, is what happened to them? As Tristan uncovers, Pictish identity didn’t disappear, but evolved. The arrival of Christianity saw their ancient traditions blend with a new faith, creating something entirely their own. But by the 10th century, as new powers rose, the Picts vanished from the historical record, being gradually absorbed into the emerging kingdom of Alba, the foundation of modern Scotland.

The great enigma of the Picts has ensured that the Roman, damning portrayal of them as barbaric has stuck for centuries. But now, thanks to archaeology, that myth is falling away, revealing a people who were fiercely independent, highly skilled, and profoundly human.

Join Tristan Hughes on a journey to find the real people behind the myths in Enemies of Rome: In Search of the Picts.

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Now, with exclusive access to this astonishing find, Tristan Hughes embarks on an investigation to uncover the hoard’s secrets. In History Hit’s new documentary, The Melsonby Hoard, he explores what this extraordinary discovery reveals about a part of ancient Britain often overshadowed by the South. From intricate chariot fittings and ornate horse harnesses to a mass of fused metalwork, this is a once-in-a-generation discovery that is rewriting the story of the Iron Age.

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A hoard that helps rewrite history

In December 2021, a metal detectorist made the discovery of a lifetime on the outskirts of Melsonby, Yorkshire. Buried in two separate deposits, this colossal hoard was filled with a diverse array of items: chariot parts, horse gear, spears, and even large bronze cauldrons. This wasn’t just a collection of objects; it was a snapshot of a moment in time, a ritual offering left behind just before the Roman conquest. And its existence is reshaping what archaeologists thought they knew about Iron Age Britain.

The find was made close to the Stanwick Iron Age Fortifications, a major power centre in northern Britain during the late Iron Age. In the programme, Tristan meets with Professor Tom Moore, Head of Archaeology at Durham University, who explains that Stanwick was likely the key power centre for the Brigantes, a confederacy of peoples mentioned in Roman histories.

Tristan Hughes discusses the Melsonby Hoard with Professor Tom Moore, Head of Archaeology at Durham University

Image Credit: History Hit

The sheer quantity and quality of the Melsonby artefacts suggest a level of wealth and sophistication previously thought to be exclusive to the south of England – proving that northern Britain was home to equally powerful and well-connected societies, with long-distance trade networks stretching as far as the Mediterranean.

A deliberate act

Why would someone bury such a staggering collection of objects? As Professor Moore reveals, the hoards were deliberately placed in two separate trenches, with many objects intentionally broken and even smashed with boulders. This wasn’t a hidden stash meant to be recovered later; it was a symbolic act, a ritual deposit.

The absence of any personal adornments or human remains makes this find particularly unique. Instead, the hoard contains ceremonial feasting items, like cauldrons, and military gear. Among the most exciting finds are iron tyres from four-wheeled wagons, the first indication that these types of vehicles were used in Britain. These objects weren’t all owned by a single person; instead, they represent a communal offering, a powerful statement of wealth and unity.

The dating of the hoard – to the early 1st century AD, just before the Roman arrival – suggests it may be related to the period before the reign of the powerful Queen Cartimandua. Professor Moore explains that it’s possible the hoard is connected to another, equally powerful female ruler, offering a tantalising new layer to our understanding of Iron Age society, and how, as he explains, “female rulers were probably quite common”.

The mysteries of the ‘block’

The Melsonby hoard includes what archaeologists call “the block” – a 250kg mass of Iron Age metalwork. Tristan meets Dr Emily Williams, an archaeological conservator at Durham University, who explains how this unique find was carefully excavated and is now undergoing vital conservation work.

The ‘Block’ – part of the Melsonby Hoard

A CT scan of the block has revealed more secrets, showing that it contains many of the same types of objects as the main deposit, including spears. Intriguingly, it’s also believed to contain Roman pilums – spears. The team hopes to keep the block intact, rather than dismantling it, preserving its secrets for future generations to study.

A game-changer on a cliff edge

Dr Keith Emerick, an Inspector of Ancient Monuments for Historic England, describes the Melsonby hoard as “spectacular and unusual,” and “a game-changer” for our understanding of the Iron Age. The sheer scale and research potential of the find is unlike anything he has ever seen.

Tristan Hughes with Dr Keith Emerick, Inspector of Ancient Monuments for Historic England inspect some of the Melsonby Hoard

However, the fate of the Melsonby Hoard hangs in the balance.

Tristan visits the Yorkshire Museum, where a small fraction of the hoard is on display for the first time. Emily North, Curator of Archaeology at the museum explains how the museum is currently undertaking a monumental fundraising effort to acquire the entire hoard for the nation. If successful, the hoard will become the property of the people of Yorkshire and Britain forever, ensuring it remains a single collection for vital conservation and research. Without these funds, there is a risk that individual pieces could be sold off to private collectors, scattering the collection and its secrets.

“Legally it’s treasure, but it’s a real treasure in terms of the secrets that it holds” explains Emily. As Tristan notes, this incredible discovery is reshaping our understanding of the Iron Age, and it’s vital that it can be kept together so that its story – the story of a buried kingdom and a lost people – can be told in full.

Join Tristan Hughes in a special documentary as he gets up close with this unprecedented discovery and uncovers the full story of The Melsonby Hoard.

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In the second film in an exciting new partnership between History Hit and one of the world’s oldest and finest public museums, the University of Oxford’s Ashmolean Museum, Professor Suzannah Lipscomb journeys behind the scenes to uncover the fascinating world of Mesopotamian demons. Guided by curator Dr Nancy Highcock, Suzannah explores how ancient people sought protection in a world where the supernatural was woven into the fabric of everyday life in The Ashmolean Up Close: Demons of Mesopotamia.

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A world infused with the supernatural

Mesopotamia, meaning the land “between two rivers”, stretches across the Middle East in the historical region located in the fertile crescent between the Euphrates and the Tigres rivers (today it now largely encompasses modern-day Iraq and parts of Iran, Syria, Kuwait, and Turkey). It was home to many of the earliest civilizations, including the Assyrians. For these people, the line between the natural and supernatural was practically non-existent.

As Dr Highcock explains, “In Mesopotamia, the supernatural were all around us.” People believed malevolent demons and ghosts were ever-present, causing illnesses and other misfortunes, making it vital to keep one’s ancestors happy and ward of evil spirits. In such a volatile world, images held real power, and every doorway, window, and even the corner of a room was a potential entry point for evil forces.

To protect themselves and feel a sense of control, they created a remarkable array of objects to harness and control these forces. The programme begins with a powerful testament to this belief: a colossal relief of a protective spirit called an Abkalu. With the body of a man and the head of an eagle, this 9th-century BC relief once guarded a palace entrance. Suzannah and Dr Highcock examine the intricate details of the figure, which holds a sacred purifying tool in one hand, designed to ward off evil from the king’s throne room.

Dr Nancy Highcock (left) and Professor Suzannah Lipscombe (right) look at some of the Ancient Mesopotamian demons in the Ashmolean Museum’s collection.

Image Credit: History Hit

Harnessing demonic power

Protection wasn’t just for the elite. The programme offers a close look at smaller, more personal artefacts used by ordinary people, including a small clay head of a demon ‘Humbaba’. Dating from around 2,000 BC, this mask-like figure is recognisable from one of the oldest known works of literature, The Epic of Gilgamesh. Suzannah learns this tiny clay head was likely used as a protective charm hung on a household doorway, a way for everyday people to contain the power and violence of the demon.

Next, Suzannah examines an amulet designed to protect women and children. The amulet depicts a female demon ‘Lamashtu’, who was blamed for infant deaths and miscarriages. As Dr Highcock reveals, the Mesopotamians believed they could fight fire with fire. By capturing the image of a demon, miniaturising it, and putting it on an amulet, they could harness its power against itself. 

Amulet depicting a terrifying female demon named Lamashtu.

Even the demons had their enemies. Suzannah is shown another finely carved amulet, this one depicting the wind god Pazuzu, a formidable monster with a powerful physique. Pazuzu was considered an antagonist to Lamashtu and was specifically used to fight off the child-murdering demon.

The amulet, inscribed in the first person (“I am Pazuzu…”), speaks to a culture where an image wasn’t just a representation; it was imbued with the power of the being itself. The inscription may have even been read aloud during critical moments, such as childbirth, to invoke the demon’s protective power.

Divine dogs and a battle for control

With the constant battle between supernatural forces, humans sought to align themselves with protective beings to gain a sense of control. The programme features another fascinating example of this practice: small clay dogs found at the ancient site of Kish. These dogs, buried at doorways or placed under thresholds, were given powerful names like “Destroyer of Life” and “Biter of the Enemy.” They were believed to actively ward off evil spirits, offering a tangible defence against an otherwise invisible threat.

These astonishing objects from The Ashmolean Museum’s collection offer a unique window into the ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia. They reveal a world where divine and demonic forces shaped daily life, and where people – from rulers to ordinary citizens – sought protection and peace in a volatile existence. Though these empires may have fallen long ago, through these enduring artefacts, their people and beliefs still speak to us today.

Join Professor Suzannah Lipscomb and Dr Nancy Highcock as they reveal the hidden, magical world of Mesopotamian demons in the new episode of The Ashmolean Up Close: Demons of Mesopotamia.

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In the latest episode of History Hit’s “Royal Sex” podcast mini-series, Dr Kate Lister is joined by renowned archaeologist and Egyptologist Dr Sarah Parcak to explore why. Prepare to challenge long-held myths and uncover the fascinating realities of one of history’s most powerful and controversial female rulers.

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A strategic mind beyond her years

When people think of Egypt, two things often come to mind: Cleopatra and pyramids. Yet, as Dr Sarah Parcak reveals, understanding Cleopatra’s true brilliance requires looking beyond popular imagery. Dr Parcak explains that Cleopatra “fully understood who she was and the moment Egypt was in when the Romans invaded… and she knew what she had to do to make Egypt’s memory survive”. This last ruler of Ancient Egypt enacted a multi-thousand-year plan for her nation’s legacy, and “she nailed it”.

Cleopatra was no mere seductress; she was an extraordinary politician, exceptionally intelligent, and fluent in as many as 8 or 9 languages (indeed she was the only Ptolemaic ruler known to have learned the Egyptian language). Deeply versed in mathematics and philosophy, her “piercing intelligence” and extraordinary presence allowed her to command conversations on complex subjects. 

In the podcast you’ll discover how Cleopatra harnessed not just her intellect, but also her understanding of sexuality and fertility, deeply connected to Egyptian religion, to consolidate her immense power.

The unlikely path to Pharaoh

Was Cleopatra destined to be Pharaoh? Not necessarily – the throne was expected to pass to one of her brothers. However, even at a young age, Cleopatra displayed an “extraordinary aptitude and intelligence” says Dr Parcak, demonstrating a finesse for politics that her father, Ptolemy XII recognised and nurtured. Her experience in Rome as a child, strategically arranged by her father, also proved crucial for navigating international power dynamics and maintaining Egypt’s independence later in life.

Eventually, she was crowned co-regent with her brother, Ptolemy XIII. Following a civil war that erupted from their falling-out, he died in the Battle of the Nile. She later co-ruled with her other brother Ptolemy XIV, who subsequently died under mysterious circumstances. Ultimately, her sheer force of will ensured she effectively reigned alone.

Profile view of the Berlin Cleopatra (left); The Chiaramonti Caesar bust, a posthumous portrait in marble, 44–30 BC (right)

Image Credit: © José Luiz Bernardes Ribeiro (left); Unknown author, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons (right)

Debunking myths

Cleopatra is inextricably linked to the myth of sex, particularly with Julius Caesar and Mark Antony. Yet, the podcast debunks many assumptions. You’ll hear why Cleopatra was almost certainly a virgin before meeting Caesar, despite rampant rumours.

Her famously dramatic encounter with Julius Caesar, far from a mere seduction, was a strategic unveiling and, according to Dr Parcak, a profound “meeting of minds” between two brilliant political strategists. Their relationship quickly deepened, leading to love and the birth of their son. This “stunning, brilliant, younger woman” who could converse with him on every subject captivated Caesar, playing to his ego and cementing an alliance beneficial to Rome. 

The Roman reaction to Cleopatra’s presence in Rome was mixed; some branded her a “whore”, while others were utterly captivated, inspiring an explosion in the cult of Isis. After Caesar’s assassination, Cleopatra swiftly returned to Egypt, later initiating her famous relationship with Mark Antony. Though often portrayed as a wild fling, their bond was enduring and resulted in three children. Dr Parcak stresses that Cleopatra had very few documented lovers, challenging the notion of promiscuity perpetuated by Roman propaganda, which conveniently targeted this brazen, powerful woman.

The Death of Cleopatra by Jean-André Rixens.

Image Credit: Public Domain

Tragedy and enduring legacy

In the podcast, Dr Parcak explains how Cleopatra’s reign faced immense challenges, including widespread drought and famine (as well as from surprising sources) that may have influenced the lead-up to crucial battles such as the Battle of Actium. When Rome inevitably sought to absorb Egypt, and after Mark Antony’s death, Cleopatra made her ultimate, iconic choice, avoiding public humiliation by Octavian in Roman triumph.

Her death, often depicted as an asp bite, was likely a swift, self-administered poison – a decision reflecting her innate understanding of her image and how it would secure Egypt’s lasting memory as Rome absorbed her kingdom.

The podcast explores how, like other powerful queens including Catherine the Great and Marie Antoinette, Cleopatra became a victim of misogynistic narratives, her power often sexualised to discredit her. Yet, Dr Parcak argues Cleopatra deliberately curated her image, using her appearance not for promiscuity, but to embody Egypt’s power and continuity.

Join Dr Kate Lister and Dr Sarah Parcak on Royal Sex: Cleopatra to navigate the intricate world of rumour, power, and passion that defined one of history’s most compelling rulers to uncover the true legacy of Cleopatra.

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In The Cutting Edge: Testing the Stone Age, History Hit visits Kent State University in Ohio, home to one of the world’s leading experimental archaeology laboratories. Here, Dr Metin Eren and Dr Michelle Bebber are scientifically exploring our distant past, meticulously recreating, experimenting with, and testing the technology of our ancient ancestors. 

Join them for a fascinating ‘cutting-edge’ experiment that investigates a vital technological development: the use and creation of tools, particularly those designed for cutting. They put the Stone Age to the test, exploring a key question: did early hominins use naturally occurring sharp rocks before they began to make their own tools?  

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The power of experimental archaeology

Using tools to cut was a pivotal step in human evolution, enabling butchering and even the beginnings of combining materials. In the past, it was assumed there was a ‘eureka moment’ where cutting tools were always deliberately made, rather than simply found in the landscape.  But is this right?  

“We can’t observe ancient people, and we can’t observe how they used the artefacts that we dig-up millions of years later,” explains Metin. “What we do is we recreate their technology, and then we do all sorts of experiments to figure out how it worked. That’s the only way we can kind of bring this stuff back to life.”

Michelle adds that this meticulous replication helps us “understand the behavioural processes that resulted in these tools,” even though we can never access the ancient mind. 

Unveiling Oldowan tools

Metin and Michelle begin by crafting replicas of Oldowan tools – some of the earliest known stone tools discovered in sites across Tanzania, Ethiopia, and Kenya. These seemingly simple tools were designed for key evolutionary steps, primarily hammering, and most importantly, cutting.

Recognising and utilising a sharp object as a tool launched humans onto a technological trajectory that continues to this day. As Metin points out “by separating out materials, we would have access to nutrients that would build up our hominin brain”. This pivotal development ultimately led to spears, knives, hunting, and the continuous innovation we see today.

Diversity of forms of recreated Stone Age tools

Image Credit: History Hit

A tapestry of innovation

The Stone Age, spanning millions of years, saw a huge diversity of tool forms, representing varied and unique solutions to survival problems. Metin explains that this period marked “the birth of our high intelligence”.

Beyond efficiency, this variety indicates our ancestors developing an appreciation for tools that were also aesthetically pleasing. As Michelle says, the constant tweaking and refinement of these tools over hundreds of thousands of years “stimulated a lot of the aesthetic and artistic expression we see later in our species”. This full arsenal allowed our species to colonise the globe, demonstrating that diversity in technological, cultural, and behavioural adaptations is our species’ greatest strength.

A hands-on approach

The experimental archaeology lab offers a unique advantage. As Metin notes, while priceless museum artefacts are untouchable, “What we do here is we recreate those artefacts and we can make as many as we need and then we test the hell out of them.”

Michelle and Metin use these replica cutting tools to test their groundbreaking theory: were early tools deliberately manufactured, or did our ancestors simply discover and utilise naturally occurring sharp rocks? Helping them is Emma Finestone of the Cleveland Museum of Natural History, an expert in early tool creation who works in the field in Kenya, finding our ancestors’ early tools dating back over 1.7 million years.

Their controlled cutting tests compare the effectiveness of naturally sharp rocks with hominin-produced stone flakes, with some surprising results. The documentary also examines the much later, highly advanced Clovis culture tools discovered in Ohio, representing the zenith of stone technology from over 10,000 years ago.

Through their innovative scientific techniques, Metin and Michelle are shedding exciting new light on the fundamental question of how and when humanity took its first key steps on its extraordinary journey.

Join us in The Cutting Edge: Testing the Stone Age for a thought-provoking investigation that reveals the extraordinary advances of the longest era of our past, the Stone Age.

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Over six captivating films, releasing throughout 2025, History Hit is going behind the scenes to discover some of the Ashmolean’s most precious and surprising objects, in depth and up close. From ancient Middle Eastern protective figurines to strange and exquisite 18th century Memento Mori reminding us of the inevitability of death; from Egyptian figures crafted before the first pharaohs to one of the greatest Anglo Saxon treasures of them all, the Alfred Jewel, this fascinating new series will cast remarkable light on the Ashmolean’s exceptionally rich and varied collection.

The films are presented by Dan Snow and Suzannah Lipscomb, with the expert guidance and insights of the museum’s world-renowned curators.

In this first film, The Ashmolean Up Close: Nero’s Golden House, Dan Snow invites us to imagine a dinner party with the Emperor Nero in his legendary ‘Domus Aurea’, his Golden House in Rome.

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A glimpse into Nero’s world

Dan’s journey begins with an extraordinary fresco from Nero’s palace. Discovered deep within the palace ruins near the Colosseum in 1688, this nearly 2,000 year old painting from a dining room offers a rare window into Nero’s aesthetic. It depicts Adonis being presented to the goddess Aphrodite, a scene hinting at the sensual atmosphere of Nero’s lavish banquets.

Yet, as Dan discovers, the latest conservation work in the Ashmolean studio is raising fascinating questions. As the fresco is prepared for display in the museum’s Roman galleries, conservator Alexandra Baldwin is meticulously cleaning away centuries of later repairs and over-paint using agar (a seaweed-derived material). Witness this delicate process as layers of history are peeled back, revealing the fresco’s original Roman splendour and raising questions about how much more of Nero’s original vision can be unveiled.

Research Keeper of Antiquities, Paul Roberts, guides Dan through the story of Nero’s opulent home, exploring how this fresco and other beautiful Roman dining artefacts from the Ashmolean’s collection offer clues to Nero’s often transgressive lifestyle.

Conservator Alexandra Baldwin from the Ashmolean team applying agar to clean away over-paint from a fresco from Nero’s Golden House, revealing its original Roman splendour

Image Credit: History Hit

Sensuality at the Roman table

Beyond the wall paintings, Paul guides Dan through exquisite Roman tableware, revealing how every detail, from hand-crafted silver cups adorned with myrtle leaves and berries to unique wine rituals, was designed to signal immense wealth and subtly encourage an atmosphere ripe for ‘loosening up’. The very air of these dinner parties would be charged with a deliberate, sensual allure. 

Power and perception

The programme also delves into Nero’s coinage, offering surprising insights into the dynamics of his power. You’ll discover how early coins tell a different story about his relationship with his formidable mother, Agrippina the Younger.

All these objects within the Ashmolean’s collection converge to paint a compelling portrait of Nero: an emperor whose grand excesses and governmental failings ultimately led to his downfall and the ruin of his magnificent Domus Aurea.

Watch The Ashmolean Up Close: Nero’s Golden House and find out more about the sensory world of this enigmatic emperor hidden within his opulent palace.

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