Ruth was inspired by watching her daughter Barbara and her friends playing with paper dolls, using make-believe to explore adult life and careers. She recognised there was a gap in the market. Dolls at the time tended to be babies or toddlers, not adults.

The first Barbie cost $3 and sales reached 300,000 in the first year. Demand became so high that Mattel decided to introduce a new doll and in 1961 Barbie was joined by her boyfriend, Ken.

Barbie’s appearance has evolved over the decades to reflect the ideas and fashions of the times. In the 1950s she mirrored the likes of Elizabeth Taylor and Marilyn Monroe, with arched eyebrows and red lips, and clothes designed by fifty of the world’s top designers.

In the 1960s she went sophisticated, inspired by Jackie Kennedy. By the mid-1980s she was sporting shoulder pads and leggings.

A 1959 Barbie doll, February 2016. Image credit: Paolo Bona / Shutterstock.com

Image Credit: Paolo Bona / Shutterstock.com

Throughout her history, Barbie’s face and figure have been the subject of much debate. When she made her debut in the 1950s, Barbie sported a sideways glance. However the growing feminist movement of the 1970s prompted Mattel to make changes and Barbie’s eyes faced forwards for the first time.

But it’s Barbie’s proportions that have faced particular scrutiny. With her long legs, large breasts and tiny waist, Mattel have been accused of presenting an unrealistic vision of the female form and of fostering a negative body image among young girls.

In 2016 Mattel introduced a new range of Barbies, promoting a positive body image and more ethnic diversity. The range features tall and petite body types, as well as a curvier figure. It also introduced seven new skin tones and twenty-four new hairstyles including an afro and curly red hair.

Despite the criticism levelled at Barbie’s appearance, Mattel has always maintained that the doll’s purpose – as envisaged by her creator – is to encourage young girls to be whatever they want to be. Over the years Barbie has embarked on more than 180 different careers.

In 1963 she became an astronaut, in recognition of the first female astronaut Valentina Tereshkova. She took to the skies as an air stewardess throughout the 1970s, and in 1990 became a pilot.

In 2019, Mattel launched a new line of Barbie dolls with disabilities, including a Barbie who uses a wheelchair. Image credit: Shutterstock.com

In 1992 she ran for President (for the first time) and has held various military roles. Since 2011 Barbie has introduced a new career each year that has been under represented by women, including computer engineer and architect.

Throughout her long life, Barbie has made headlines. Who wasn’t shocked by the news in 2004 that she had broken up with her long-time boyfriend Ken! (They reunited in 2011).

Today Barbara Millicent Roberts from the fictional town of Willows in Wisconsin continues to be a dominant force in the fashion doll world, despite growing competition, with annual gross sales in excess of $1 billion.

Early life and musical education

Fanny Cäcilie Mendelssohn Bartholdy was born on 14 November 1805, in Hamburg, Germany. Growing up in a wealthy and intellectually stimulating family, Fanny was born into a world that nurtured her creative inclinations. Her father, Abraham Mendelssohn, a prominent banker, and her mother, Lea Mendelssohn, provided a nurturing environment for Fanny’s musical development.

Fanny received early musical training from her mother and was exposed to influential artists and composers of the time, fostering her love for music.

Musical partnership with Felix Mendelssohn

Fanny’s musical talents soon became apparent, and she formed a strong bond with her younger brother Felix, who was a renowned composer, pianist, organist and conductor. The siblings enjoyed a close and collaborative relationship, frequently engaging in musical exchanges and providing mutual support. They composed music together, and Fanny often offered valuable feedback to Felix on his compositions.

However, societal norms of the time prevented Fanny from pursuing a professional music career with the same level of recognition as her brother. Fanny’s works were frequently included in concerts and performances organised by her younger brother. It is worth noting that Felix often attributed some of Fanny’s compositions to himself, further overshadowing her musical legacy.

Portrait of Felix Mendelssohn by the German painter Eduard Magnus, 1846

Image Credit: Eduard Magnus, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Compositions and musical style

Fanny’s compositions encompassed a wide range of genres, including piano pieces, chamber music, choral works, and songs. Her compositions often exhibited a unique blend of lyricism, emotional depth, and technical complexity, showcasing her exceptional talent.

Notable compositions include her cycle of piano pieces titled Das Jahr (The Year), composed in 1841, which vividly captured the changing moods and seasons. Another notable composition is her choral work Oratorium nach Bildern der Bibel (Oratorio Based on Biblical Images). Composed in 1831, it draws inspiration from various biblical stories and imagery.

Cultural and social constraints

The prevailing attitudes of the era restricted Fanny from sharing her music publicly. Women’s role in society during the 19th century was primarily limited to the private sphere, and pursuing a professional music career was often discouraged. However, her brother Felix recognised her talent and frequently included her compositions in his concerts, often attributing them to himself.

Fanny’s father and later her husband, Wilhelm Hensel, also held conservative views on gender roles, which further impeded her career prospects. Consequently, many of her compositions remained unpublished during her lifetime.

Performance opportunities

Most of her works were performed in private salons, attended by a select circle of friends and family. In the 19th century salons were intimate gatherings held in the homes of prominent women, where influential figures would come together to engage in intellectual and artistic discussions. To circumvent the limitations imposed upon her, Fanny fostered a vibrant salon culture within her home. These salons provided a platform for emerging artists to showcase their talents and ideas, and became hubs of intellectual and cultural activity.

Fanny seized these opportunities to perform her compositions and showcase her musical prowess, receiving recognition and admiration from the artistic community. Fanny also used the salons to support and promote other artists, solidifying her status as a patron of the arts.

Legacy and posthumous recognition

Tragically, Fanny Mendelssohn’s life was cut short when she passed away on 14 May 1847, at the age of 41. Her untimely death occurred in Berlin, Germany, where she had been residing with her family.

The circumstances surrounding Fanny’s passing are believed to be related to a stroke. Reports suggest that she had been in fragile health for some time, suffering from an undisclosed illness that had gradually weakened her.

However, her musical legacy lived on, even if it remained overshadowed for many years. Her compositions, once overlooked, have gradually gained recognition for their artistic merit and influence. In recent decades, efforts to revive and perform her works have gained momentum, helping to shed light on her immense talent and contribution to music history.

Her legacy serves as a testament to the resilience and determination of female artists who defied societal constraints to share their artistic brilliance with the world.

This groundbreaking railway system operated through two tunnels, connecting a total of 6 strategically located stations over a length of 3.2 miles. The line seamlessly linked the bustling City of London with the vibrant district of Stockwell, providing a swift and efficient mode of transportation for the rapidly growing population of the city.

The Tube – Victorian style

The Metropolitan Railway became the world’s first underground railway when it opened between Bishop’s Road (Paddington) and Farringdon Street in 1863. It was built using the “cut and cover” method where a deep trench is dug and the tunnel built in to it before being covered over.

The Metropolitan Railway was established first, while the City and South London Railway came into operation in 1890. The MR had a head start of almost 3 decades.

Metropolitan Railway, Praed Street Junction

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain

The City and South London Railway was excavated using a tunnelling shield, as proposed by South African engineer James Henry Greathead. The tunnelling shield protected workers while they dug out and supported the tunnels using pre-cut sections of tunnel wall.

This method was first developed in 1818 by Sir Marc Isambard Brunel. Brunel and his son Isambard Kingdom Brunel used a tunnelling shield in the construction of the Thames Tunnel in 1825.

Given the difficulty of providing sufficient ventilation for the deep-level tunnels, the use of steam locomotives to haul trains was unfeasible.

Instead Greathead initially intended to use a cable haulage system to pull the carriages through the tunnels. But when the Patent Cable Tramway Corporation went bankrupt in 1888 electric traction became the favoured method. The carriages would be pulled by electric locomotives powered through a third rail supplied by a generating station at Stockwell.

Uncomfortable carriages

The Metropolitan Railway initially used steam locomotives, which led to issues such as noise, smoke, and discomfort for passengers. In contrast, the City and South London Railway was the world’s first electric traction railway. Electric trains provided a smoother, cleaner, and more comfortable journey, enhancing the passenger experience.

The Victorian London underground carriages consisted of 3 interconnected cars, each with a capacity to accommodate up to 32 passengers. Unlike previous train systems, this innovative design brought together passengers of all classes, eliminating the separation between First and Second Class compartments. The carriages featured small, slender windows positioned high up on the walls.

Initially, it seemed puzzling to have windows in a tunnel where there was little to see. However, the passengers quickly discovered that these windows contributed to a sense of claustrophobia, leading to them humorously dubbing the carriages “padded cells.”

The official inauguration of the Victorian London underground carriages, known as the City and South London line, took place on 18 December 1890. On the day of its official inauguration, the railway was ceremoniously opened by Edward, Prince of Wales (later known as Edward VII). With the flick of a golden key, he activated the electric current that powered the system. The line’s inaugural year witnessed an impressive 5.1 million passengers utilising this new mode of transportation.

The Metropolitan Railway covered a larger area, connecting Bishop’s Road (Paddington) and Farringdon Street in its initial stretch. Over time, it expanded to serve various destinations, ultimately becoming part of the extensive London Underground network. The City and South London Railway, on the other hand, had a more localised route, running from the City of London to Stockwell.

Urban transformation

Over time, the City and South London line underwent several extensions, ultimately transforming into what is known today as the Bank Branch of the Northern Line.

The introduction of this underground railway brought about a paradigm shift in urban transportation, revolutionising the way people traveled within the city. It paved the way for the development of similar underground networks worldwide, shaping the future of urban planning and transportation engineering.

The success of the City and South London Railway prompted the expansion and evolution of the London Underground system, creating a comprehensive network of interconnected lines that continue to serve millions of commuters and tourists to this day.

]]> https://www.historyhit.com/490-bc-battle-marathon/ Tue, 20 Jun 2023 14:45:52 +0000 http://histohit.local/490-bc-battle-marathon/ Continued]]> The Battle of Marathon, fought 2,500 years ago, holds a remarkable position in the annals of history, evident in its commemoration through an Olympic event and even a chocolate bar. This pivotal clash has cemented Marathon’s enduring significance in Western history.

The battle’s legacy and symbolic weight have been frequently acknowledged throughout the ages. It stands as a testament to the triumph of a democratic and “free” state—the very core of Western ideals—against a despotic Eastern invader. This victory ensured the preservation of unique traditions that would eventually shape civilisations worldwide. While the actual dynamics of the conflict are undoubtedly multifaceted, Marathon’s renown is expected to transcend time, resonating for centuries to come.

Persia

The background of the battle is dominated by the rise of the Persian Empire – which is often described as the world’s first superpower. By 500 BC it had come to cover a huge swathe of territory from India to the Greek city-states of western Turkey, and its ambitious ruler Darius I had aims at further expansion.

Like the Roman Empire, the Persian was religiously tolerant and allowed rule by local elites to continue relatively uninhibited, but in this early stage (its founder, Cyrus the Great, had died in 530) rebellions were still common. The most serious occurred in Ionia – the western part of Turkey, where the Greek city-states threw off their Persian satraps and declared themselves democracies in response to a Persian-backed attack on the independent city of Naxos.

Historic map of the Achaemenid Empire. Image credit: William Robert Shepherd, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Image Credit: William Robert Shepherd, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

In this they were inspired by the democratic example of Athens, which was tied to many of the old Ionian cities through past wars and intrigues, and by a close cultural bond as many of the Ionian cities had been founded by Athenian colonists. In response to Ionian pleas and Persian arrogance in their diplomacy, the Athenians and the Eritreans sent small task forces to aid the revolt, which saw some initial success before being brutally put down by the might of Darius’ armies.

After the sea battle at Lade in 494 BC, the war was all but over, but Darius had not forgotten the impudence of the Athenians in aiding his foes.

Revenge

According to the great historian Herodotus, who almost certainly spoke to survivors of the Persian wars, the impudence of Athens became an obsession for Darius, who allegedly charged a slave with telling him “master, remember the Athenians” three times every day before dinner.

The first Persian expedition into Europe began in 492, and managed to subjugate Thrace and Macedon to Persian rule, though heavy storms prevented Darius’ fleet from making further inroads into Greece. He was not to be put off however, and two years later another powerful force, under his brother Artaphernes and and admiral Datis, set sail. This time, rather than going for Greece through the north, the fleet headed due west through the Cyclades, finally conquering Naxos along the way before arriving on mainland Greece in mid-summer.

The first stage of Darius’ plan of revenge, the burning and humiliation of Athen’s partner in supporting the Ionian revolt – Eretria – was achieved quickly, leaving his foremost enemy alone to withstand the might of the Persian Empire.

A city against a superpower

Artaphernes’ army was accompanied by Hippias, the former tyrant of Athens who had been ousted at the beginning of the city’s transition into democracy and had fled to the Persian court. His advice was to land the Persian troops at the bay of Marathon, which was a good spot for a landing just a day’s march away from the city.

The command of the Athenian army, meanwhile, was entrusted to ten different generals – each representing one of the ten tribes that made up the citizen body of the city-state – under the loose leadership of the Polymarch Callimachus.

It is the general Miltiades, however, who emerged out of Marathon with the greatest fame. He had grown up as a Greek vassal of Darius in Asia, and had already tried to sabotage his forces by destroying an important bridge during the Great King’s retreat from an earlier campaign in Scythia, before turning on him during the Ionian revolt. After defeat, he had been forced to flee and take his military skill to Athens, where he was more experienced at fighting the Persians than any other leader.

Miltiades then advised the Athenian army to move swiftly to block the two exits from the bay of Marathon – this was a risky move, for the force of 9,000 under Callimachus’ command was the everything the city had, and if the Persians brought them to battle with their much larger army at Marathon and won then the city would be completely exposed, and likely to suffer the same fate as Eretria.

Greek troops rushing forward at the Battle of Marathon, Georges Rochegrosse, 1859. Image credit: Georges Rochegrosse, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Image Credit: Georges Rochegrosse, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Help did come from an unexpected source, the tiny city-state of Plataea, which sent another 1000 men to reinforce the Athenians, who then sent Pheidippides, the best runner in the city, to contact the Spartans, who would not come for another week, by which time their sacred festival of the Carneia would be done.

Meanwhile, an uneasy stalemate prevailed in the bay of Marathon for five days, with neither side wanting to begin the battle. It was in the Athenian’s interest to wait for Spartan help, while the Persians were wary of attacking the fortified Athenian camp and of risking battle too soon against a relatively unknown quantity.

The size of their army is harder to guess, but even the most conservative of modern historians place it at around 25,000, skewing the odds in their favour. They were, however, more lightly armed than the Greeks, who fought in armour and wielding long pikes in a tight phalanx formation, while Persian troops put more of an emphasis on light cavalry and skill with the bow.

The Battle of Marathon

On the fifth day, the battle began, despite the lack of Spartan help. There are two theories why; one is that the Persians re-embarked their cavalry to take the Greeks in the rear, thus giving Miltiades – who was always urging Callimachus to be more aggressive – an opportunity to attack while the enemy were weaker.

The other is simply that the Persians tried to attack, and when Militiades saw them advancing he ordered his own troops forward in order to wrestle back the initiative. The two are not mutually exclusive, and it is also possible that the Persian infantry advance was planned in tandem with the flanking move of the cavalry. What is certain is that finally, on 12 September 490 BC, the battle of Marathon began.

‘They crashed into the Persian army with tremendous force’, illustration by Walter Crane in Mary Macgregor, ‘The Story of Greece Told to Boys and Girls’. Image credit: Walter Crane, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

When the distance between the two armies was narrowed to around 1500 metres, Miltiades gave the order for the centre of the Athenian line to be thinned to just four ranks, before continuing his men’s advance against the much larger Persian army.

In order to limit the effectiveness of the Persian archers, he gave his heavily armoured troops the order to run once they were close enough , crying “at them!” The Persians were astonished by this wall of spear-carrying armoured men coming towards them at full pelt, and their arrows did little damage.

Who won the Battle of Marathon?

The collision when it came was brutal, and the heavier Greek soldiers came off by far the better. The Persians had placed their best men in the centre but their flanks consisted of poorly armed levies, while the Greek left was commanded in person by Callimachus, and the right was overseen by Arimnestos, the leader of the Plataeans.

Now surrounded on all sides, the elite Persian troops broke and ran, and many drowned in the local swamps in a desperate attempt to flee. It was here that Callimachus was killed in the mad rush to catch the Persians, and according to one account his body was pierced by so many spears that it remained upright even in death.

Despite the death of their commander, the Greeks had won a stunning victory for very minor losses. While thousands of Persians lay dead on the field, Herodotus reports only 192 Athenians and 11 Plataeans killed (though the true figure might be closer to 1000.)

The Persian fleet then moved out of the bay to attack Athens directly, but seeing Miltiades and his troops already there they gave up and returned to the furious Darius. Marathon did not end the wars against Persia, but was the first turning point in establishing the success of the Greek, and specifically Athenian way, which would eventually give rise to all western culture as we know it. Thus, according to some, Marathon is the most important battle in history.

Within 1 month, Hitler consolidated dictatorial powers, effectively extinguishing the democratic foundations of the newly formed German republic. Furthermore, just a year later, in 1934, he merged the positions of President and Chancellor, creating a new title for himself known as the “Fuhrer”, a German word for “the leader”.

The ascent of Hitler and the erosion of democracy in Germany was a perplexing development for a nation that had, until then, experienced a relatively stable period of 14 years under a democratic system. What were the factors that contributed to this sudden transformation?

German woes

Historians have debated over this question for decades, but certain key factors are unavoidable. The first was economic struggle. The Wall Street Crash of 1929 had devastated the German economy, which had just started to boom following the years of chaos after World War One. As a result, the early 1930s had been a time of immense hardship for Germany’s large population, which had known little else since 1918.

Before World War One, under the autocratic Imperial rule of Kaiser Wilhelm, Germany had been on the path towards becoming a true world power, and had lead the way militarily as well as in the sciences and industry. Now it was a shadow of its former self, humiliated disarmed and crippled by the harsh terms that had followed their defeat in the Great War.

The consequences of its defeat had left the country economically devastated and burdened with the harsh terms of the Treaty of Versailles. These conditions, coupled with political instability, social unrest, and economic hardships, created a fertile ground for extremist ideologies to take hold.

Politics of anger

Consequently, a significant number of Germans came to associate authoritarian governance with prosperity, while perceiving democracy as synonymous with hardship. Following the humbling Treaty of Versailles, the abdication of the Kaiser further feed public discontent, leading to the middle-class politicians who had signed the treaty bearing the brunt of the German people’s anger.

Hitler exploited these circumstances, capitalising on widespread disillusionment and resentment among the population. Through propaganda, charismatic rhetoric, and manipulation of political institutions, he managed to consolidate power and dismantle democratic safeguards. The Nazi Party, under Hitler’s leadership, targeted specific groups, scapegoating them for Germany’s problems, particularly Jews, political dissidents, and minority communities.

His popularity grew rapidly after the Wall Street Crash, and his Nazi Party had gone from nowhere to the biggest German party in the Reichstag elections of 1932.

Hitler in conversation with Ernst Hanfstaengl and Hermann Göring, 21 June 1932. Image credit: Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Image Credit: Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Defeat of democracy

As a result, President Hindenburg, a popular but now aged hero of World War One, had little choice but to appoint Hitler Chancellor in January 1933, after all his other attempts to form a government had collapsed.

Hindenburg despised Hitler, who had never gained a rank higher than Corporal during the war, and apparently refused to look at him as he signed him in as Chancellor.

When Hitler then appeared on the Reichstag balcony, he was greeted with a storm of Nazi salutes and cheering, in a ceremony carefully organised by his propaganda specialist Joseph Goebbels.

Nothing like this had ever been seen in German politics before, even under the Kaiser, and many liberal Germans were already greatly concerned. Shortly afterwards, General Ludendorff, another World War One veteran who had once been in league with Hitler, sent a telegram to his old comrade Hindenburg.

It read “By appointing Hitler Chancellor of the Reich you have handed over our sacred German Fatherland to one of the greatest demagogues of all time. I prophesy to you this evil man will plunge our Reich into the abyss and will inflict immeasurable woe on our nation. Future generations will curse you in your grave for this action.”

Hitler’s ascension to power in Germany in 1933 marked a critical turning point for Europe. The collapse of democracy alongside the combination of economic hardships, political instability, Hitler’s charisma and manipulative propaganda, allowed him to seize power and reshape the course of German and world history.

Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin had died in 1924, and in the ensuing power struggle the Georgian Joseph Stalin came to the fore as the General Secretary and the de facto leader of Soviet Russia. 

What was Stalin’s Five Year Plan?

Between 1928 and 1932, Stalin’s Five Year Plan was targeted at collectivizing agriculture and developing heavy industry. This was the first of four so-called plans, which took place in 1928-32, 1933-37, 1938-42 and 1946-53.

After a period of relative economic liberalism Stalin decided that a wholesale restructuring of the economy was needed, claiming that unless the Soviets caught up with the capitalist western powers they would be destroyed.

Stalin famously stated: ”We are fifty or a hundred years behind the advanced countries. We must make up this gap in ten years. Either we do it or they will crush us.”

The requisition of grains from wealthy peasants (kulaks) during the forced collectivization in Timashyovsky District, Kuban Soviet Union. 1933. Image credit: Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Image Credit: Credited to U. Druzhelubov. The date of death is impossible to determine therefore PMA is not known., Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Mechanisation and collectivisation

Stalin’s first Five Year Plan involved the mechanisation and collectivisation of agriculture in a bid to make it more efficient. It also involved the opening of huge new industrial centres in previously uninhabited areas rich in natural resources, such as Magnitogorsk, built near huge iron and steel reserves east of the Ural Mountains.

Economic activity was pushed in the direction of heavy industries, which lead to a 350 percent increase in output, in a bid to prepare Russia for an industrialised war. The first Five Year Plan also had a revolutionary effect on society, as millions left the farms to pursue new lives in the cities.

The human cost

Despite these successes, Stalin’s Five Year Plan was not an unqualified success. In addition to mechanisation and collectivisation, key features of the first Five Year Plan included the disastrous impact it had on human lives. Aside from the terrible conditions in the new factories, where unskilled workers had little idea of how to operate machines, the collectivisation of agriculture was ruinous.

Political prisoners eating lunch in the Minlag ‘special camp’ coal mine. In ‘special camps’ prisoners had to wear prison garb with personal numbers. Image credit: Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Image Credit: Kauno IX forto muziejus / Kaunas 9th Fort Museum, Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Millions died in the subsequent famine and peasant disturbances. An entire social class of wealthier peasants – the Kulaks, who had accumulated more land, livestock, or wealth than their fellow peasants — were accused of sabotaging the progress of the Plan. Consequently they were either massacred or imprisoned in Gulags, which were forced labour camps, so that the state could exploit their land for collectivisation.

As many of the deaths were in non-Russian areas such as Ukraine, the Five Year Plan created lasting divisions between Russians and non-Russians.

The policies also played a role in causing the Holodomor, a mass famine in the Ukraine, and Soviet inactivity in response to the catastrophe has lead to a recent re-categorisation of events as a genocide against the Ukrainian people.

World War Two

In World War Two, the tensions caused by the first Five Year Plan proved consequential. Ukrainians, for example, who were subject to its disastrous effects were more willing to collaborate with the Nazis against the USSR.

The first Five Year Plan actually lasted 4 years, as it supposedly met all of its objectives earlier than expected. On the other hand, this can be ascribed to Russian propaganda efforts. Nevertheless, the first plan and those that followed, which continued the general objectives of the first while also emphasising the production of military hardware, were critical in preparing Russia for an industrialised war.

It seems unlikely that Russia could have resisted Nazi invasion without the immense industrialisation program that had been undertaken in the years prior. However, the vast cost in human life of the Five Year Plans and the invasion of Russia itself remain a dark stain on the history of the 20th century.

Travel through picturesque landscapes such as the majestic beauty of the Scottish Highlands aboard the Jacobite Steam Train, or indulge in some fine dining aboard the exquisite Art Deco carriages of the Belmont Venice Simplon-Orient-Express.

Whether you’re a history buff, a train enthusiast, or simply seeking an unforgettable adventure, these historic rail journeys offer a window into the past, allowing you to relive the nostalgia and charm of a bygone era.

The Venice Simplon-Orient-Express

The Orient Express was not a single set of coaches but a renowned service that operated various routes across Europe throughout its history. During its peak, there were several distinct Orient Express routes, which traveled from Paris to Munich, Vienna, Budapest, and either Bucharest or Istanbul. In the 1920s and 1930s, the routes ran from Calais to Paris, Lausanne, Milan, Venice, Belgrade, and either Athens or Istanbul.

The carriages of the renowned Venice Simplon-Orient-Express luxury train hold their own unique history and character, accumulated from years of traversing Europe. In 1864, George Mortimer Pullman, an innovative railway constructor, introduced a technologically advanced and luxurious train in Great Britain, surpassing anything seen in Europe at the time. Parlour cars and sleeping carriages were subsequently introduced in the 1870s, offering passengers the novelty of onboard dining.

Georges Nagelmackers (1845-1905)(left); Orient Express’ promotional poster (right)

Image Credit: Nadar, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons (left); Jules Chéret, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons (right)

Concurrently, Belgian railway entrepreneur George Nagelmackers crafted luxury rolling stock and initiated the Orient Express service from Paris to Giurgi, Romania, in 1883. This train boasted sleeping carriages and was the first continental train to feature restaurant cars. The completion of the Simplon Tunnel in 1906, linking Switzerland and Italy beneath the Alps, significantly reduced the travel time between Paris and Venice. 

However, due to the later development of cheaper and faster air travel, the Orient Express routes declined in popularity, and stopped running in 1977. However rail enthusiast and entrepreneur James B.Sherwood later acquired 2 of the carriages at an auction in 1977. Over the subsequent years, he invested millions in procuring and restoring 35 original vintage carriages, culminating in the rebirth of the Orient Express in 1982.

The interior of a luxurious dining car carriage on the Belmont Venice Simplon Orient Express

Image Credit: Graham Prentice / Alamy Stock Photo

The train embarked on its maiden voyage from London to Venice, under a new name, the Venice Simplon-Orient-Express, which continues to operate to this day. Passengers today board 1920s-vintage Art Deco carriages with stylish interiors, and it has become synonymous with luxury travel, frequented by royalty and movie stars, and immortalised in Agatha Christie’s novel Murder on the Orient Express.

Travellers today can enjoy sumptuous meals, and elegant afternoon teas, as they cross through the picturesque countryside of England, France and Switzerland, before arriving in the Italian city of Venice.

The Jacobite

The Jacobite steam train has been described as the greatest railway journey in the world. Its 84-mile route begins in Fort William, at the foot of Britain’s highest mountain Ben Nevis, and ends at Mallaig, a small fishing port and gateway to the Isle of Skye. En route it runs across the mouth of Loch Morar, the deepest freshwater loch in Britain, and crosses the breathtaking 21-arch Glenfinnan Viaduct.

The Jacobite’s route forms part of the West Highland line, which at its full distance runs for over 160 miles from Glasgow to Mallaig. At the time, the west Highland area was suffering through a lack of transport. In October 1887 the provost (mayor) of Fort William N B MacKenzie mobilised local support for a new railway connection with Glasgow. The British Northern Railway agreed to offer part of the funds, with the British government providing the rest.

Despite opposition from The Highland Railway and Caledonian Railway, who felt the line threatened their own, the West Highland Railway bill was passed in August 1889.

The Jacobite steam train at Fort William train station

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons / Chris McKenna (Thryduulf) / CC BY-SA 4.0

The line between Fort William and Glasgow opened in 1894 but due to competition with other lines and the remote location of its stations, it struggled to make a profit. British Northern Railway was soon losing money on the venture but still agreed to partly fund an extension, building a viaduct at Glenfinnan at a cost of £18,904. The completion of the extension further enhanced the West Highland Line’s significance and facilitated transportation to the picturesque coastal town of Mallaig.

The Jacobite’s route is famously featured in the Harry Potter films. The company operating The Jacobite provided Warner Brothers with the train used as the iconic Hogwarts Express throughout the movie series, granting them permission to film along the route.

The Ghan

The Ghan is an extraordinary 1800-mile route slicing right through the Red Centre of Australia from Adelaide in the south to Darwin in the north. The journey takes 54 hours in all, including stops at the opal mining town of Coober Pedy, and Alice Springs.

The train was originally called The Afghan Express. It was named in honour of the camel drivers who were brought to Australia from the Middle East to help the Europeans to navigate the arid interior. In fact 3 railways have carried the name The Ghan. Construction began on the first, a narrow gauge line, in the late 1800s. The purpose of the first line was to link the coal mines of the interior with Port Augusta on the coast of South Australia, west of Adelaide. The line was extended in stages until finally, in 1929, it reached Stuart (modern day Alice Springs).

As with all pioneering ventures, the first Ghan faced tough obstacles: the steel rails buckled in the intense heat; termites gnawed at the wooden sleepers; kangaroos and emus were mown down in the darkness; and in places flash floods washed away the track entirely. Eventually a new track was built, this time in standard gauge, located further west to avoid the flood plains. The new Ghan opened in 1980.

More than 20 years later, in 2004, the final link from Alice Springs to Darwin was completed, costing A$1.3 billion. The first departure on the new transcontinental line left Adelaide on 1st February 2004.

Today, passengers can experience the whole route from the comfort of private sleeper cabins and dine on fine cuisine in the restaurant car.

The Blue Train

The Blue Train, running from Cape Town to Pretoria, is one of the world’s most luxurious train journeys, with a history linked to the Witwatersrand Gold Rush of the early 20th century. From 1923, 2 trains initially ferried thousands of prospective gold miners between Cape Town and Johannesburg.

The trains were utilitarian, built to transport the eager masses, but as the gold boom continued, it produced a new class of wealthy elites, who expected to travel in style.

In 1927 new luxury coaches were introduced, boasting hot and cold running water, electric lighting, a sumptuously appointed dining car, and an observation coach at the back of the train where guests could enjoy unobstructed views of the passing countryside. Local people began referring to the service as “those blue trains”, and the name stuck. The Blue Train was born.

The Blue Train

In 1937 an order was placed with a Birmingham firm for 12 new all-steel coaches, in a distinctive blue, were delivered at the outbreak of World War Two, during which the service was suspended. When it resumed in 1946, local people began referring to the service as “those blue trains” and the name stuck. The Blue Train was born. The train was modernised in the 1970s and electric and diesel engines replaced the original steam locomotives.

Today passengers taking the 27-hour journey from Cape Town to Pretoria can choose between de luxe and luxury suites aboard the train. Passengers can relax in one of two lounges before dining on local produce in the restaurant car.

Trans-Siberian

The Trans-Siberian is the world’s longest rail journey, stretching 5,772 miles (9,289km) from Moscow to Vladivostok, it crosses 6 time zones.

In 1886, Emperor Alexander III approved a series of research projects to assess the viability of a Trans-Siberian railway. Siberia lacked strong transport links to boost its development, but there was plenty of foreign interest in constructing. Alexander determined that the railway must be funded and built by Russia, as a matter of national pride.

Construction began in 1891 and started at both ends of the line, with the intention of meeting in the middle. The terrain was inhospitable; workers had to contend with the Russian taiga (forests), swamps, vast rivers and lakes, and ground hardened by permafrost. Nevertheless, the railway progressed at a rate of 600km a year and was completed in just twelve years.

The new railway led to a boom in agricultural exports from Siberia and an influx of millions of immigrants. The poor were crammed into sparse third-class carriages, whilst a first class ticket offered wealthy passengers access to a music room, complete with a grand piano, and even a gym.

Today the Trans-Siberian offers passengers the chance to experience the vast expanses and diversity of the Russian landscape, with opportunities to break the journey in the historic cities of Irkutsk, Kazan and Yekaterinburg.

Walk through the medieval magnificence of Edinburgh Castle, the legendary stronghold perched atop an ancient volcanic rock. Explore the enchanting halls of Windsor Castle, the oldest and largest occupied castle in the world, where centuries of royal heritage come alive. Marvel at the fairy-tale beauty of Bodiam Castle, a perfect example of a moated medieval fortress.

Whether you’re a history enthusiast, an architecture lover, or simply seeking to wander through centuries of legends, our curated selection of Britain’s finest castles has something to captivate every visitor.

1. Tower of London, City of London

The Tower of London

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The castle was founded towards the end of 1066 as part of the Norman Conquest, but its White Tower (which gives the castle its name) was constructed in 1078 by William the Conqueror and became a symbol of the oppression being levelled on London by the new rulers.

The Tower of London has indeed served various roles over the ages. In addition to being a prison, it has also functioned as an armoury, treasury, menagerie (a collection of exotic animals), public records office, and Royal Mint.

As a prison before the 1950s it was famed for housing William Wallace, Thomas More, Lady Jane Grey, Edward V and Richard of Shrewsbury, Anne Boleyn, Guy Fawkes and Rudolph Hess.

2. Windsor Castle, Berkshire

Windsor Castle, Berkshire

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Windsor Castle was built in the 11th century as part of the Norman Conquest and since the time of Henry I has been used as a royal residence. The site was chosen to protect Norman dominance on the fringes of London and to be near the strategically important River Thames.

The castle withstood an intense siege during the First Barons War in the 13th Century and Henry III followed up by building a luxurious palace within the grounds.

Edward III performed a bit of a grand designs project on the palace to turn it into one of the most spectacular secular buildings of the Middle Ages. Both Henry VIII and Elizabeth I made increasing use of the palace as a royal court and centre for entertaining diplomats.

3. Leeds Castle, Kent

Leeds Castle, Kent

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Built in 1119 by Robert de Crevecoeur as another Norman demonstration of their strength, Leeds Castle is situated in the middle of a lake on two islands. King Edward I took control of the castle in 1278 and as it was a favoured residence, invested further in developing it.

Leeds was captured by Edward II in 1321 and after he died in 1327, his widow made it her preferred residence. The castle was transformed in 1519 for Catherine of Aragon by Henry VIII.

The building escaped being destroyed in the English Civil War because Sir Cheney Culpeper – its owner – decided to side with the Parliamentarians. Leeds Castle remained in private ownership until its most recent custodian died in 1974 and left it to a charitable trust to open it to the public.

4. Dover Castle, Kent

Dover Castle, Kent

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Dover Castle was built on a site thought to date back to the Iron Age or earlier, which explains the many earthworks that surround the building. The site had been used for centuries to protect England from invasion and it was in the 1160s that King Henry II began building the huge stone castle.

Of strategic importance to the Plantagenets, the castle formed a gateway to the realm and a place to house Henry II’s travelling court from France. Whilst medieval royalty made great use of the building, it was also in use during the last war.

Tunnels were built for defence under the building during the Napoleonic Wars of the early 1800s and were more recently used as an air raid shelter during World War Two and as a nuclear shelter during the Cold War.

5. Edinburgh Castle, Scotland

Edinburgh Castle, Scotland

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Edinburgh Castle headlines the view of the Scottish capital as it has been built on top of an extinct volcano overlooking the city below. The original settlement dates from the Iron Age, with the site serving as a royal residence from the reign of David I in the 12th century until the Union of the Crowns in 1603.

The earliest detailed documents referring to a castle at the site, rather than a rock, date from the death of King Malcolm III in 1093.

Since 1603, the castle has served various purposes, including spells as both a prison and a garrison.

6. Caernarfon Castle, Gwynedd

Caernarfon Castle, Wales

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7. Bodiam Castle, East Sussex

Bodiam Castle, East Sussex

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Bodiam Castle stands as a testament to the strategic defences erected during the tumultuous period of the Hundred Years War, specifically designed to safeguard southern England from potential French invasions. Constructed in 1385 by Sir Edward Dalyngrigge, a former knight of Edward III, the castle served as a formidable stronghold.

in 1641, the castle changed hands when Lord Thanet, a staunch Royalist supporter, sold it to the government as a means to pay off his Parliamentary fines.

The castle was then purchased by John Fuller in 1829 and undertook a number of partial renovation projects until it was handed to the National Trust in 1925.

8. Kenilworth Castle, Warwickshire

Kenilworth Castle, Warwickshire

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The castle’s origins can be traced back to the 1120s when it was first established, presumably constructed using wood and earth materials. It was only when Henry II ascended to the throne and confronted a rebellion led by his son, also named Henry, that the castle was garrisoned between 1173 and 1174.

During the Second Barons’ War in 1244, the castle gained prominence as Simon de Montfort utilised it as a base for his operations. This conflict resulted in the infamous Kenilworth Castle siege, which lasted approximately six months and holds the distinction of being the longest siege in British history.

In the 18th and 19th centuries the building became a ruin and was used as a farm. After restoration, English Heritage took over maintenance of the castle.

9. Tintagel Castle, Cornwall

Tintagel Castle, Cornwall

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Tintagel’s history can be traced back to the Roman Empire’s occupation of Britain. The site’s commanding position presented a remarkable natural advantage for the establishment of a fort.

In 1233, Richard, 1st Earl of Cornwall, constructed a castle on the Tintagel site. However, when Richard departed, subsequent Earls showed little interest in maintaining the structure, resulting in its gradual decay and ruin.

During the Victorian era, Tintagel Castle emerged as a popular tourist destination, and since then there has been continued work to preserve and protect the site.

10. Alnwick Castle, Northumberland

Alnwick Castle, Northumberland.

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Famed for being used today in Harry Potter films, Alnwick Castle is well strategically placed on the banks of the river Aln where it protects a crossing point. The first parts of the building were developed in 1096 by Yves de Vescy, Baron of Alnwick.

King David I of Scotland took over the castle in 1136 and it saw sieges in 1172 and 1174 by William the Lion, King of Scotland. After the Battle of Alnwick in 1212, King John ordered the castles demolition, but the orders were not followed through.

The castle frequently exchanged hands over the next few centuries. In the 19th century, the 4th Duke of Northumberland altered and developed the castle and it remains the seat of the current Duke of Northumberland.

11. Bolsover Castle, Derbyshire

Bolsover Castle, Derbyshire

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A castle was built at Bolsover by the Peveril family in the 12th century, who also owned the nearby Peveril Castle. During the First Barons War, Henry II invested in developing both buildings to accommodate a garrison.

Later King John gifted the two castles to William de Ferrers in 1216 in order to garner his support during a nationwide rebellion, but the castellan blocked the move. Eventually the Ferrers forcibly took the castle in 1217, but it was returned to the crown six years later.

Bolsover Castle was bought by Sir George Talbot in 1553 but later sold in 1608 to Sir Charles Cavendish, who invested in rebuilding it. The castle became uninhabited from 1883 and was given to the nation. It is now managed by English Heritage.

12. Framlingham Castle, Suffolk

Framlingham Castle, Suffolk

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The date that Farmlingham Castle was first built is unclear but there are historical references dating back to 1148. It may have been built by Hugh Bigod during the 1100s, or perhaps a development of a previous Anglo Saxon building.

In the 14th century the castle was given to Thomas Brotherton, the Earl of Norfolk and by 1476 the castle was owned by John Howard, the Duke of Norfolk. The castle was passed back to the crown in 1572 when the 4th Duke, Thomas, was executed by Elizabeth I for treason.

The area escaped being drawn heavily into the English Civil War between 1642-6 and as a result the castle remains intact. The castle is now a Grade 1 listed monument owned by English Heritage.

13. Portchester Castle, Hampshire

Portchester Castle, Hampshire

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Porchester Castle is believed to have been built in the late 11th century after the Norman Conquest by William Maudit.

It was rebuilt in stone in the first half of the 12th century by William Pont de l’Arche. During King Henry II’s sons revolt between 1173 – 1174, the castle was garrisoned and fitted with catapults by King Henry’s men.

The castle was developed further in the 1350s and 1360s to strengthen the sea wall and introduce improved domestic space. In anticipation of war with Spain, Elizabeth I strengthened the castle again and further developed it into a royal residence during 1603-9.

In 1632, the castle was bought by Sir William Uvedale and since passed through the Thistlethwaite family, who owned the castle from the mid 1600’s to 1984. It is now run by English Heritage.

14. Chirk Castle, Wrexham

Chirk Castle, Warwick

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Chirk Castle, located in Warwickshire, holds a rich history that dates back to its construction by Roger Mortimer de Chirk in 1295. The castle’s completion in 1310, during the reign of Edward I, marked a significant milestone in subduing the last Welsh princes.

The castle was strategically placed at the meeting point of the rivers Dee and Ceroig to defend the Ceirog Valley, which had become the areas base for the Marcher Lordship of Chirkland.

Acquired by Thomas Myddelton in 1595, the castle played a pivotal role during the English Civil War as it supported the Parliamentarians. However, the castle later shifted its allegiance to the royalist cause before being restored in 1659 when Thomas Myddelton’s son changed sides. It was entrusted into the care of the National Trust in 2004.

15. Corfe Castle, Dorset

Corfe Castle, Dorset

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Corfe Castle, likely a fort before the medieval castle, saw construction during William the Conqueror’s castle-building campaign after the Norman Conquest. Between 1066 and 1087, he built 36 castles across England and Corfe was one of the rarer stone varieties constructed at that time.

King John and Henry III made significant changes, adding walls, towers, and halls. In 1572, Corfe was put up for sale by Elizabeth I after serving as a royal fort, and during the English Civil War, it changed ownership several times. After the monarchy’s restoration in 1660, the Banks family, owners of the castle, chose to build a house on a nearby estate rather than rebuilding the castle.

It wasn’t until the 1980s that Ralph Bankes left the Bankes estate – including Corfe Castle – to its current owners, the National Trust.

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