Among the crew of the Endurance was the Australian photographer Frank Hurley, who documented many aspects of the ill-fated voyage on film and in still photographs. As the negatives were heavy and the crew were marooned waiting for rescue, Hurley had to destroy or discard many of the images he captured. Some of Hurley’s negatives survived the treacherous journey home, however.

Here are 15 of Hurley’s iconic images of the Endurance Expedition.

Frank Hurley and the Endurance

Image Credit: Royal Geographical Society/Alamy Stock Photo

Endurance in the ice

Image Credit: Royal Geographical Society/Alamy Stock Photo

The darkness of Antarctica could be difficult for a ship to navigate in. Lights and ropes were attached to ice mounds to help the ship move through the ice.

Navigating Endurance through the ice.

Image Credit: Royal Geographical Society/Alamy Stock Photo

Over 5,000 men responded to the advertisement “Men wanted for hazardous journey. Low wages, bitter cold, long hours of complete darkness. Safe return doubtful. Honour and recognition in event of success”. 56 were carefully selected and split into two teams of 28, one on the Endurance and one on the Aurora.

The crew from the Endurance Expedition

Image Credit: Royal Geographical Society/Alamy Stock Photo

Alfred Cheetham and Tom Crean.

Image Credit: Royal Geographical Society/Alamy Stock Photo

Cheetham served as third-officer and was known to be popular and cheerful. After the expedition, Cheetham returned home to Hull where he was informed that his son had been lost at sea. He then enlisted in the Mercantile Marine, serving on the SS Prunelle where, on 22 August 1918, the ship was torpedoed and Cheetham was killed. Crean had taken part in 3 major Antarctic expeditions with this being his last. After returning home to County Kerry, he retired from naval service, started a family and opened a pub.

Dr Leonard Hussey and Samson.

Image Credit: Royal Geographical Society/Alamy Stock Photo

The team was not just made up of humans, 100 dogs from Canada accompanied the crew. The dogs were cross-breeds from strong dogs including wolves, collies and mastiffs that would help pull crew and supplies across the ice. After the crew was left stranded on the ice, the men made the dogs igloos – or dogloos as the crew named them – for the dogs to live in. The men formed incredibly close bonds with their dogs.

Crean with the new puppies.

Image Credit: Royal Geographical Society/Alamy Stock Photo

During the expedition, puppies were born to ensure that the number of dogs was kept high for work.

After the Endurance sank and the men became trapped on the ice, they made the difficult decision to shoot the dogs. Shackleton said that “it was the worst job that we had had throughout the Expedition, and we felt their loss keenly”.

From left to right: James Wordie, Alfred Cheetham and Alexander Macklin washing the galley floor of the Endurance.

Image Credit: Royal Geographical Society/Alamy Stock Photo

Life aboard a ship could be hardwork and incredibly demanding. The conditions of work were even more challenging when facing the harsh climate of Antarctica.

Hurley captured a game of football that was played to pass the time.

Image Credit: Royal Geographical Society/Alamy Stock Photo

The frustrations felt by the crew after becoming trapped in the ice could have led to low morale. To keep their spirits up, the crew would play games including chess and enjoy dinners together.

The crew eating dinner together.

Image Credit: Royal Geographical Society/Alamy Stock Photo

Food was vital to the daily lives of the crew and would occupy their minds. It was important that the men had a hearty meal for energy and warmth but to also ensure that supplies were kept to last the entire expedition. You can see from this photograph that the crew appear to be tucking into a plate of baked beans! Shackleton and the crew even sat down for a Christmas dinner in 1914 that included a feast of turtle soup, christmas pudding, rum, stout and whitebait.

Observing the wreck of the Endurance.

Image Credit: Royal Geographical Society/Alamy Stock Photo

Despite their best efforts, the Endurance was eventually crushed by the ice on 27 October 1915. Remarkably, all members of the crew survived and enough supplies were saved to set up camps on the ice.

Members of the team arriving on Elephant Island.

Image Credit: Royal Geographical Society/Alamy Stock Photo

Due to the ice beginning to crack, the crew had to journey to a new location, Elephant Island, to make camp. After 497 days at sea in desperate search of land, they landed on Elephant Island on 15 April 1916.  Though the Island was not their first choice, due to its treacherous landscape and inhospitable climate, the men were overjoyed to finally be on land.

A hut was made on Elephant Island out of the two remaining boats Starcomb Wills and Dudley Docker which sheltered 22 men for 4 months. When food started to become scarce, the crew would hunt and eat the wildlife of Antarctica including seals and penguins. The crew also had to endure ill health and frostbite as well as not knowing if they will be rescued or if they will die before help arrives.

The hut that would be the home for 22 men for 4 months.

Image Credit: Royal Geographical Society/Alamy Stock Photo

Shackleton, knowing that if they did not get help the men would starve, decided to journey to South Georgia Island in search of help. He was accompanied by 5 members of the crew – Worsley, Crean, McNish, Vincent and McCarthy.

Shackleton Worsley, Crean, McNish, Vincent and McCarthy preparing to leave Elephant Island.

Image Credit: Royal Geographical Society/Alamy Stock Photo

After 4 months, Shackleton returned to his crew on Elephant Island. Through courage and determination, all 28 men of the Endurance survived.

The men cheering the rescue boat.

Image Credit: Royal Geographical Society/Alamy Stock Photo

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Ocean liners were passenger ships, designed to transport people and cargo from one destination to another on a line. Built for speed and durability, these ocean liners were also furnished and fitted out with every amenity a passenger could want for a 2-week voyage.

Here’s a collection of photographs of these magnificent vessels and the people who sailed on them.

Workers under the propellers of RMS Mauretania

Image Credit: Unknown author, 'Tyne & Wear Archives & Museums', Public Domain, via Flickr

The ocean liner trade was a lucrative business with companies like Cunard and White Star Line owning a fleet of vessels. In constant competition with each other, companies would order the construction of the biggest and fastest ships. RMS Mauretania, owned by Cunard, was the largest ship in the world at the time of her launch in 1906.

RMS Mauretania after her launch

Image Credit: Tyne & Wear Archives & Museums, No restrictions, via Wikimedia Commons

Before a maiden voyage, a ship would need to have been built to standard rules and regulations, surveyed, received a classification and subsequently approved for service.

RMS Empress of Britain in Sydney Harbour, 1938

Image Credit: Unknown Author, State Library of New South Wales, Public Domain, via Flickr

Ocean liners could carry over 2,000 passengers in first, second and third class, with around 800 members of staff and crew. Some, like Empress of Britain would carry just under 500 passengers.

Grahame-White group: Arnold Daly, I. Berlin, Grahame White, Ethel Levey, J.W. Southern & wife

Image Credit: Bain News Service photograph collection, Prints & Photographs Division, Library of Congress, LC-B2- 5455-5 via Flickr

At any given time, an ocean liner could be carrying passengers from a mix of backgrounds and with different reasons for travel. For the first and second classes, made up of society’s wealthiest and the rising middle classes, it was an opportunity to travel to another continent for leisure or to accompany family for business. For these passengers, travelling on an ocean liner was a glamorous affair and many would be seen wearing their finest and most fashionable clothes.

Hughes party for Brazil c. 1920

Image Credit: Bain News Service photograph collection, Prints & Photographs Division, Library of Congress, LC-B2- 5823-18 via Flickr

H. W. Thornton & family c. 1910

Image Credit: Bain News Service photograph collection, Prints & Photographs Division, Library of Congress, LC-B2- 3045-11, via Flickr

Madame Curie, her daughters & Mrs Meloney

Image Credit: Bain News Service photograph collection, Prints & Photographs Division, Library of Congress, LC-B2- 5453-12 via Flickr

Ocean liners would also often transport royalty, politicians and celebrities from sport, stage, screen and music. Madame Curie toured America in the early 1920s to raise money for radium research.

Babe Ruth aboard RMS Empress of Japan

Image Credit: Photograph attributed to Stuart Thomson, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

In 1934, baseball legend Babe Ruth, along with other American league players, sailed to Japan aboard Empress of Japan. This was part of a goodwill tour, showcasing American baseball to over 500,000 Japanese fans.

HMS Lusitania at New York dock in 1907. She is met by a crowd on her starboard side.

Image Credit: Everett Collection/Shutterstock.com

An ocean liner in dock, prior to leaving or after arrival, was always a spectacle. As well as the hustle and bustle of excited passengers and crew preparing for the voyage, spectators would gather around the dock to catch a glimpse of these remarkable structures and wave the passengers off.

Kitchen on RMS Lusitania where incredible dinners would be prepared.

Image Credit: Bedford Lemere & Co, DeGolyer Library, Southern Methodist University, Public Domain, via Flickr

Each officer and member of staff would know their duties to prepare for the voyage. Provisions would be loaded onto the ship. For one voyage, Cunard’s RMS Carmania had 30,000 lbs of beef; 8,000 lbs of sausage, tripe, calves’ feet and kidneys; 2,000 lbs fresh fish; 10,000 oysters; 200 tins of jam; 250 lbs of tea; 3,000 lbs of butter; 15,000 eggs; 1,000 chickens and 140 barrels of flour.

Crew of RMS Mauretania.

Image Credit: Bedford Lemere & Co. [attrib.], DeGolyer Library, Southern Methodist University, Public Domain, via Flickr

Ships could have hundreds of staff including officers, chefs, waiters and waitresses, bartenders, cleaners, stokers, engineers and stewards. They were there to look after the passengers and the ship.

Violet Jessop, queen of the sinking ships.

Image Credit: Unknown author, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

One of the most famous crew members was Violet Jessop. She served as a stewardess on RMS Titanic, HMHS Britannic and RMS Olympic and remarkably survived all of their sinkings. Violet regularly worked with Arthur John Priest, the unsinkable stoker, who survived Titanic, Alcantara, Britannic and Donegal.

Details from the dome ceiling on RMS Oceanic that acts as a reminder of Britain’s maritime and military heritage.

Image Credit: R Welch, Public Record Office of Northern Ireland, Public Domain, via Flickr

Once aboard, passengers would get the first glimpses of the richly decorated interiors and beautiful exteriors that they would become familiar with over the next 10 days. To reflect that grandeur and wealth of ocean travel, liner companies would often commission leading artists and architects to design the interiors.

The interior of Mauretania was designed by Harold Peto, most well known for his landscape gardens, and reflected the taste of the time with Louis XVI revival panelling, ornamentation and furniture.

Single cabin on SS Franconia

Image Credit: Tyne & Wear Archives & Museums, Public Domain, via Flickr

Once aboard, and you’ve made your way through the corridors to the correct class, you would be taken to your cabin or, if you were lucky enough to have one, your suite. First and second class rooms were usually equipped with single beds, basic amenities, storage space and sometimes a dining or living area.

Stateroom on RMS Titanic

Image Credit: Robert Welch, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

If you had enough money, you could book into the regal suites or state rooms. Lusitania and Mauretania were fitted with two, located on either side of the promenade deck. They were the most richly decorated cabins with multiple bedrooms, a dining room, parlour and bathroom. These expensive suites would also have rooms allocated for staff and servants of the first-class passengers.

RMS Titanic first-class cabins decorated in the Louis XVI style

Image Credit: Robert Welch, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

On Titanic, a third-class ticket cost around £7 (£800 today). Second class was upwards of £13 (£1,500 today) and first class was a minimum of £30 (£3300 today). The most expensive ticket on Titanic was believed to be around $2,560 ($61,000 today) and was purchased by Charlotte Drake Cardeza. Cardeza reportedly travelled with 14 trunks, 4 suitcases and 3 crates.

RMS Lusitania dining room

Image Credit: Bedford Lemere & Co, DeGolyer Library, Southern Methodist University, Public Domain, via Flickr

Dining rooms were opportunities to socialise and eat. Each class had its own dining room and menus for breakfast, lunch and dinner. There would often be a special welcome and goodbye dinner at the start and end of the voyage. The luncheon menu from RMS Titanic on 14 April 1912 included a hot meal of cockie leekie, corned beef, chicken a la Maryland and grilled mutton chops as well as a cold buffet of soused herring, veal pie, ham, chicken galantine and spiced beef.

Verandah café on RMS Mauretania

Image Credit: Bedford Lemere & Co, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

As well as large dining rooms, many ocean liners were fitted with smaller cafes for lighter meals. The first-class verandah café on RMS Mauretania was remodelled in 1927 and based on the orangery at Hampton Court Palace. The verandah was considered to be quite an innovative design as it allowed passengers to sit and eat outside whilst also protecting them from the elements.

RMS Olympic swimming pool

Image Credit: John Bernard Walker, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

RMS Titanic gym

Image Credit: Robert Welch, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Health and fitness was becoming a fashionable trend in the Edwardian era. Olympic and Titanic were big enough to be fitted with a swimming pool and a gymnasium as well as a Turkish baths.

RMS Olympic arriving in New York for the first time, 1911

Image Credit: Bain News Service, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

The golden age of ocean liners was full of glamour, excitement and prestige. Ships like Mauretania, Aquitania, Lusitania and Olympic carried thousands of passengers all over the world every year on what must have been an incredible voyage. Though tragedy often struck, people continued to use ocean liners until air travel became popular in the 1950s.

These ancient and medieval structures were built to last and many can be seen all over the world today.

Here are 10 remarkable cities and structures carved into mountains around the globe.

1. Petra, Jordan

Petra, Jordan

Image Credit: tenkl/Shutterstock.com

Petra, located in southern Jordan, is one of the most famous archaeological sites and examples of a city carved into a rockface. The city was the capital of the Nabataean kingdom and was seen as an excellent location for the incense trade as it is situated at a crossroads between Arabia, Egypt and Syria-Phoenicia.

Once home to 20,000 people at its peak in the 1st century AD, the city included temples, churches, an amphitheatre, public buildings, reservoirs and passages. Now a UNESCO World Heritage Site, many may recognise it from Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade.

2. Predjama Castle, Slovenia

Predjama Castle, Slovenia

Image Credit: hbpro/Shutterstock.com

Predjama Castle in Slovenia was built over 800 years ago in the middle of a cliff. It was designed to be inaccessible and impregnable, able to withstand sieges and protect its inhabitants, and is the largest cave castle in the world.

Behind the castle are a series of tunnels that weave throughout the cliff. The legend states that the knight Erazem of Prejama fled to his castle in 1483 after killing a relative of Holy Roman Emperor Frederick III. Erazem was able to survive a siege on the castle for over a year, using the tunnels to get food.

3. Ellora, India

Ellora, India

Image Credit: Mazur Travel/Shutterstock.com

Built between 600-1,000 AD, the Ellora Caves consist of 34 monasteries and temples across 2 km of land. The temples and monasteries were sanctuaries devoted to Buddhism, Hinduism and Jainism and highlight tolerance and co-existence of different religions in India.

Now a UNESCO World Heritage Site, the Ellora Caves provide us with an insight into the spiritual, cultural and social history of India.

4. Lycian Tombs, Turkey

Lycian Tombs, Turkey

Image Credit: OlegD/Shutterstock.com

These magnificent tombs were built in the 4th century overlooking the city of Fethiye in Turkey. The Lycians believed that magical winged creatures would carry their dead to the afterlife so would bury them geographically higher.

Though the exteriors are grand, the interiors were relatively simple with chambers cut into the rock to display the bodies.

5. Ajanta Caves, India

Ajanta Caves, India

Image Credit: Yongyut Kumsri/Shutterstock.com

Built between the 2nd century BC and 650 AD, the Ajanta Caves are made up of 30 Buddhist cave monuments. The caves are considered to be one of the finest examples of ancient Indian and Buddhist art, with paintings and sculptures depicting the lives of Buddha.

Historically these caves were used by monks, merchants and pilgrims for rest or to escape the monsoon. Today the Ajanta Caves are a UNESCO World Heritage Site and a major tourist site in Maharashtra.

6. Longmen Caves, China

Longmen Caves, China

Image Credit: Bule Sky Studio/Shutterstock.com

Found south of Luoyang, the Longmen Caves or Grottoes can be traced back to the reign of Emperor Xiaowen (471-499 AD). The caves house around 100,000 statues of Shakyamuni Buddha and his disciples that were donated by emperors, royalty, generals, the wealthy and religious groups.

During the Second Sino-Japanese War, the Japanese looted the site and took with them many statues and artefacts. Further destruction took place during the Cultural Revolution but since 1949 the caves were declared a protected area. Now they are a UNESCO World Heritage Site due to their ‘outstanding manifestation of human artistic creativity’.

7. Lalibela Churches, Ethiopia

Lalibela, Ethiopia

Image Credit: WitR/Shutterstock.com

There are 11 rock-hewn churches in the city of Lalibela that were built during the reign of King Gebre Mesqel Lalibela (1181-1221). 7 of the churches are free-standing and 4 are carved into the mountain.

King Lalibela wanted to recreate Jerusalem in his own kingdom. The churches became an important site for the Ethiopian Orthodox Christian Church and are still used for daily worship and religious festivals.

8. Cliff Palace, USA

Cliff Palace, USA

Image Credit: Laurens Hoddenbagh/Shutterstock.com

Built in the 13th century, the Cliff Palace in Colorado is the largest cliff dwelling in North America. The Ancestral Puebloans (an ancient Native American culture) built the palace into the sandstone cliff to escape the changing climate of Colorado.

Research suggests that there were 150 rooms for 100 people. The site was abandoned by the 14th century possibly because of drought. It was rediscovered in 1888 by Richard Wetherill and Charlie Mason whilst they were out looking for cattle. It was restored and today can be visited by the public.

9. Sassi Di Matera, Italy

The ancient cave dwellings, known as Sassi, Sassi di Matera, UNESCO World Heritage Site, Matera, Basilicata, Italy

Image Credit: imageBROKER / Alamy Stock Photo

The area of Matera has been occupied since the Paleolithic period. Settlers started building houses, known as the Sassi, into the rocks around 9,000 years ago and is one of the oldest examples of continuous inhabitation in the world. Generations continued to renovate the town, building caverns, homes, churches and tombs.

10. Kropfenstein Castle, Switzerland

Kropfenstein Castle

Image Credit: Adrian Michael, CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons

It is not known when and why Kropfenstein Castle was built, but experts believe that the castle was in operation between the 13th and 15th centuries. To access the castle, a path was built along the rockface on the east side. The castle itself follows the natural edge of the cliff, giving it its unusual shape.

The development of ocean liners meant that the world suddenly opened up for people who had the means and ability to travel overseas. People embarked on these journeys for a holiday in a new country, for business, to experience sea travel or to relocate to a new city.

Here’s how ocean liners revolutionised international travel.

The origins of ocean liners

Ocean liners were passenger ships that operated on a ‘line’ between continents. They were built as a method of transportation – people, cargo, mail – rather than for the holiday itself.

Liners needed to be fast as they were operating to a strict schedule, tough and durable to survive multiple journeys through rough seas and inclement weather and had to be comfortable for passengers who could be spending weeks on the ship.

Though built as a method of transporting from point a to point b, ocean liners were seen as the height of luxury and were fitted out with dining rooms, gyms, swimming pools, lounges, music rooms and dance halls.

When were ocean liners invented?

Before the 19th century, international travel on ships was slow and uncomfortable. It was only undertaken if necessary, rarely for a holiday or for pleasure. The Industrial Revolution had brought about significant developments in shipbuilding and engineering including the use of steam power. Steam power was a vital part of the early development of ocean liners as it meant ships could travel faster than before across oceans.

The Black Ball Line introduced the first regular passenger service in 1818 with speed and comfort in mind. In 1838, Isambard Kingdom Brunel’s SS Great Western was launched, the largest passenger ship in the world from 1837-1839. Great Western could carry 128 first-class passengers and a crew of 60 from Bristol to New York City in just over 2 weeks.

The success of the Great Western, along with the increased migration to America in the 1850s, meant that shipping companies saw a lucrative gap in the market for regular intercontinental travel.

The subsequent decades saw shipping companies like P&O, Cunard, White Star Line, Hamburg America and Norddeutscher Lloyd compete to build the biggest, fastest and most luxurious ships in the world. This competitive building would see various ships claim the Blue Riband, an unofficial award given to the fastest ship to cross the Atlantic Ocean.

Examples of early ocean liners include RMS Oceanic (one of the first to have electricity fitted), RMS Britannia and SS Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse. These new ocean liners could carry on average 1,500 passengers and crew of over 400.

SS Kaiser Wilhelm der Gross. Considered to be the first superliner and won the Blue Riband in 1898.

Image Credit: Library of Congress, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Where could ocean liners travel to?

The busiest line was from Europe to North America. This was largely due to the historic links between Europe and the US, the increased popularity in immigration to America in the 19th century and the familial links between those that emigrated and those that remained at home.

For those in America, Europe was advertised as an exciting holiday destination, the perfect opportunity for the rising middle classes to show their wealth by holidaying in the Italian Riviera or shopping in Paris. Additional lines were set up between Europe and North America and South America, Africa, Asia, Australia and Canada.

What was it like to travel on an ocean liner in the early 20th century?

This all depended on what you could afford. Ocean liners were predominantly split into 3 classes – first, second and third – and passengers had to remain in their parts of the ship. First class was the most luxurious and exclusive part of the ship, reserved for celebrities, royalty and the wealthiest in society, usually using the liner for pleasure.

Third class was far simpler in its design, though relatively comfortable, and usually held the majority of passengers, with many using the liner to emigrate. Often second and third-class areas were built closer to the ship’s engines, meaning that when a ship was at full speed, vibrations could be felt throughout these areas. For all passengers and crew, this was home for 2 weeks.

RMS Olympic, sister ship of Titanic, was one of the most famous and popular ocean liners of the early 20th century. Her interior was the height of luxury. First class included cabins with private bathrooms (unusual for liners), a dining room, an à la carte restaurant, a grand staircase (often used by the ladies to show off the latest fashions and to catch the eye of eligible bachelors), a swimming pool, Turkish baths and a gym.

RMS Olympic‘s first-class swimming pool

Image Credit: John Bernard Walker, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

The second class had a library, smoking room and an elevator and the third class had their own smoking room and common area. If you were lucky enough to be able to afford the Olympic‘s 2 most luxurious cabins, you could expect a private promenade deck, sitting room, walk-in wardrobes, private bath and toilet.

Ocean liners provided middle and upper-class passengers the opportunity to socialise and network with others in society.

Was it dangerous to travel on an ocean liner?

From treacherous waters and dangerous weather to ship malfunctions and accidents, travel by sea carries with it many risks. Before travelling, a passenger could take comfort in the knowledge that everything possible had been done to ensure the safety of the vessel.

This included the compulsory addition of the Load Line to all ships in 1894 (the Load Line prevented ships from being overloaded), the requirement to have a classification and survey of the vessel done to ensure that it had been built to specific rules and standards, a qualified crew and captain and technological developments in electricity and radio to be able to call for help.

However, disasters did tragically strike ocean liners. In 1909, RMS Republic was struck by SS Florida whilst sailing through a thick fog off the coast of Nantucket. Republic was able to issue the new CQD (‘all stations: distress’) signal as she had been fitted with a Marconi radio. This meant that over 1,500 lives were saved making all liner companies aware of the importance of all ships being fitted with a radio system. CQD would be replaced with SOS after it was used during the Titanic sinking.

In 1930, RMS Tahiti was travelling from Sydney to San Francisco when her propeller shaft broke causing a large hole to form in her stern. The ship quickly flooded. Distress signals were sent and were responded to by Penybryn, a Norwegian steamship. Penybryn kept Tahiti floodlit throughout the night whilst the crew fought to save her, offering to take passengers and crew if required.

US steamship Ventura arrived on the scene and the passengers were eventually evacuated. The crew returned to the sinking ship to rescue luggage, papers and bullion before the ship sank. All passengers and crew survived.

RMS Tahiti sinking

Image Credit: Unknown author, Public Domain, Australian National Maritime Museum, via Flickr

Were ocean liners used in World War One and World War Two?

During both wars, many ocean liners were requisitioned by the government and converted into troop transportation ships, cargo ships and hospital ships. Ships including Mauretania, Aquitania and Olympic were painted in dazzle camouflage to avoid detection from enemy submarines.

Unfortunately, the wars led to the loss of many ocean liners. Britannic sank in the Aegean Sea after hitting a mine and Lusitania, carrying civilians, was struck by a torpedo in 1915. SS Rex, the pride of Italy, was bombed and sunk by the Royal Air Force in 1944 despite attempts to keep her safe.

After World War One and World War Two, ocean liners were used as part of the reparations and so many did not return to their original owners. Liner companies had to build new fleets or reconvert their original ships before operating again.

What did the jet age mean for ocean liners?

In the 1950s, the ocean liner business came under threat from the development of airliners and jet planes. The De Havilland Comet, launched in 1953, was the first commercial jet airliner. This was followed by the Boeing 707, Douglas DC-8 and the Sud Aviation Caravelle. These planes were able to cover greater distances in a shorter time making the need for ocean liners defunct.

By 1965, 95% of passenger travel across the Atlantic was done by planes. The majority of ocean liner services ceased in 1986.

What is the difference between an ocean liner and a cruise ship?

Out of fear for their loss of business, many ocean liners were converted into mega cruise ships, offering people a new type of holiday. Whereas ocean liners were built for speed and long voyages, cruise ships didn’t need to be. Instead of the ship being the mode of transport to a destination, the cruise ship was the destination.

Cruise ships could be slower, bigger and be fitted out with everything a passenger could want: shops, theatres, cinemas, dining rooms, ball rooms, gyms, sports facilities, swimming pools and spas.

The origins of cruise ships can be found in the Grand Tours of Europe. P&O, the world’s oldest cruise line, introduced the first passenger cruises in 1844, touring the Mediterranean. In the 1890s, alongside ocean liners, many companies offered cruises understanding that it was becoming a popular method of holidaying. From the 1960s, mega cruising became one of the most popular and lucrative holidays.

Are ocean liners used today?

Though these great ships once ruled the waves, today only one ocean liner remains in service RMS Queen Mary 2. Built in 2003 for Cunard, she still operates as a liner, carrying passengers across the Atlantic. Her interior is reminiscent of her ancestors, with grand designs and plenty of activities onboard to keep passengers entertained.

RMS Queen Mary II

Image Credit: myphotobank.com.au / Shutterstock.com

Showing how ocean liners have grown, the SS Great Britain was 1,340 GRT whereas the RMS Queen Mary 2 is a staggering 149,215 GRT making her the largest ocean liner ever built.

In 2010, for example, marine archeologists retrieved 168 bottles of near-perfect champagne from a Baltic Sea shipwreck. And in Jordan’s Black Desert in 2018, researchers discovered a 14,000-year-old piece of bread. These finds, and others like them, have helped further our understanding of what our ancestors ate and drank and provided a tangible link with the past. In some cases, the foodstuffs were even safe to consume or were able to be analysed and then recreated in the modern era.

From Irish ‘bog butter’ to ancient Greek salad dressing, here are 10 of the oldest foods and beverages ever discovered.

1. Egyptian tomb cheese

During an excavation of the tomb of pharaoh Ptahmes in 2013-2014, archaeologists stumbled upon an unusual find: cheese. The cheese had been stored in jars and was estimated to be 3,200 years old, making it the oldest known cheese in the world. Tests indicate that the cheese was likely made from sheep or goat milk and is significant because there had previously been no evidence of cheese production in ancient Egypt.

Tests also indicated that the cheese had traces of bacteria that would cause brucellosis, a disease that comes from consuming unpasteurised dairy products.

2. Chinese bone soup

An archaeologist with an animal bone soup that dates back some 2,400 years. The bygone-era broth was found by Liu Daiyun, of the Shaanxi Provincial Institute of Archaeology, in Xi’an, Shaanxi Province, China.

Image Credit: WENN Rights Ltd / Alamy Stock Photo

For millennia, cultures throughout the world have consumed soups and broths for medicinal purposes. In ancient China, bone soup was used to support digestion and improve the kidneys.

In 2010, excavations of a tomb near Xian unveiled a pot that still contained bone soup from over 2,400 years ago. Experts believe that the tomb was of a warrior or member of the land-owning class. It was the first discovery of bone soup in Chinese archaeological history.

3. Bog butter

‘Bog butter’ is exactly what it sounds like: butter found in bogs, primarily in Ireland. Some samples of bog butter, typically stored in wooden containers, have been dated back over 2,000 years, and researchers have estimated the practice of burying butter originated in the first century AD.

It’s unclear why the practice started. The butter may have been buried to preserve it for longer as the temperatures in bogs were low. It is also thought that because butter was a valuable item, burying it would protect it from thieves and invaders and that many stashes of bog butter were never retrieved because they were forgotten about or lost.

4. Edward VII coronation chocolate

To mark the coronation of Edward VII on 26 June 1902, several commemorative items were made including mugs, plates and coins. Tins of chocolates were also handed out to the public including those made in St Andrews. One schoolgirl, Martha Grieg, was given one of these tins. Remarkably, she didn’t eat any of the chocolates. Instead, the tin, with the chocolates inside, was passed down through 2 generations of her family. Martha’s granddaughter generously donated the chocolates to the St Andrews Preservation Trust in 2008.

5. Shipwrecked champagne

In 2010, divers found 168 bottles of champagne amongst a wreck at the bottom of the Baltic Sea. The champagne is over 170 years old, making it the oldest drinkable champagne in the world.

The champagne had been preserved in a near-perfect state so was able to be tasted and drunk, and it provided important evidence in how champagne and alcohol were made in the 19th century. Those that tasted the champagne said that it was very sweet, probably due to there being 140 grams of sugar per litre, compared to 6-8 grams (sometimes none at all) in modern champagne.

Bottle of champagne found near the Åland Islands, Baltic Sea.

Image Credit: Marcus Lindholm/Visit Åland

6. Salad dressing

Discovered in a shipwreck in the Aegean Sea in 2004 was a jar of salad dressing dating from 350 BCE. After the contents of the ship were recovered in 2006, tests were carried out on the jar, revealing a mix of olive oil and oregano inside. This recipe is still used today, having been passed down through generations in Greece, as adding a herb like oregano or thyme to olive oil not only adds flavour but also preserves it.

7. Antarctic fruitcake

Fruitcakes, made with strong spirits such as whisky, brandy and rum, can last for long periods of time. The alcohol in the cake can act as a preservative, killing bacteria, so fruit cakes can be stored for several months without spoiling.

Its long shelf life, as well as its rich ingredients, made fruitcake an ideal supply for Robert Falcon Scott’s Antarctic expedition in 1910-1913. In 2017 during the Antarctic Heritage Trust’s excavation of the Cape Adare hut, used by Scott, a fruitcake was found.

8. World’s oldest bottle of beer

In 1797 the ship Sydney Cove was wrecked off the coast of Tasmania. Sydney Cove was carrying 31,500 litres of beer and rum. 200 years later, the wreck of Sydney Cove was discovered by divers and the area was declared a historic site. Archaeologists, divers and historians worked to retrieve items – including sealed glass bottles – from the wreck.

To commemorate this discovery, the Queen Victoria Museum & Art Gallery, the Australian Wine Research Institute and brewer James Squire worked to recreate the beer using yeast extracted from the historic brews. The Wreck Preservation Ale, a porter, was created and sold in 2018. Only 2,500 bottles were produced and provided a unique opportunity to taste the past.

Discovering a bottle of beer in the wreck

Image Credit: Mike Nash, Tasmanian Parks and Wildlife Service/QVMAG collection

9. The oldest piece of bread

Whilst excavating a stone fireplace in Jordan’s Black Desert in 2018, archaeologists found the world’s oldest known piece of bread. Estimated to be 14,000 years old, the bread looked like a pitta bread but was made from oats and cereals similar to barley. Also included in the ingredients were tubers (an aquatic plant) which would have given the bread a salty taste.

10. Flood noodles

4,000-year-old millet noodles were discovered along the Yellow River in China. Archaeologists believe that an earthquake caused someone to abandon their dinner of noodles and flee. The bowl of noodles was then overturned and left in the ground. 4,000 years later, the bowl and surviving noodles were found, providing evidence that noodles originated in China, not Europe.

The tomb and the Terracotta Army were only discovered in 1974 by a group of local farmers. Since then, extensive archaeological excavations have been carried out at the site and on the warriors themselves, but there are still parts of the tomb complex that haven’t been explored.

Now a UNESCO World Heritage Site, the Terracotta Army draws visitors from all over the world who are eager to see this incredible archaeological site and learn about the importance of Qin Shi Huang in global history.

Here are 8 images that tell the remarkable story of Qin Shi Huang’s Terracotta Army.

1. The army was built for the first Emperor of China, Qin Shi Huang

Mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor, Qin Shi Huang, in Xian, China

Image Credit: Tatsuo Nakamura/Shutterstock.com

Zhao Zheng, his birth name, was born in 259 BC and became King of Qin at the age of 13. Known for being a ruthless and paranoid leader (he was constantly afraid of being assassinated and attempts were made), Qin launched attacks on the other Chinese states resulting in unification in 221 BC. Zheng then declared himself Qin Shi Huang, First Emperor of Qin.

2. 700,000 workers were conscripted to build the tomb

Terracotta Army

Image Credit: VLADJ55/Shutterstock.com

The mausoleum is the largest known tomb in Chinese history and some 700,000 workers helped construct it and its contents. At the bottom of the 76-metre-tall tomb is a sprawling city necropolis, modelled on the capital Xianyang.

Qin was buried with weapons, his Terracotta Army to protect him, treasures and his concubines. Traps were set to attack looters and a mechanical river with flowing mercury was installed. All the workers that made the mechanical devices were buried alive in the tomb to protect its secrets.

3. 8,000 soldiers make up the Terracotta Army

Terracotta Army

Image Credit: Costas Anton Dumitrescu/Shutterstock.com

It is estimated that there are over 8,000 terracotta soldiers at the site with 130 chariots, 520 horses and 150 cavalry horses. Their purpose is not only to show Qin’s military strength and leadership but to also protect him after death.

4. The soldiers are roughly life-size

The Terracotta Army

Image Credit: DnDavis/Shutterstock.com

The larger figures are the most senior members of the army and they are set out in a military formation. Military personnel include infantry, cavalrymen, chariot drivers, archers, generals and lower-ranking officers. It seems that the faces of each of the soldiers is different but form from 10 basic shapes that match their ranks and positions in the army.

5. The army contains chariots, musicians and acrobats

One of the bronze chariots

Image Credit: ABCDstock/Shutterstock.com

Two broken bronze chariots were found in the mausoleum. It took 5 years to restore the chariots which are now on display at the Museum of the Terracotta Warriors. In addition to the army, other terracotta figures that Qin would need in the afterlife included musicians, acrobats and officials.

6. Originally the army was painted with bright colours

Recreated and coloured Terracotta warriors

Image Credit: Charles, CC 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons

Research suggests that the army would have had cream faces, green, blue and red uniforms and armour and black and brown detailing. Other colours used included brown, pink and lilac. The faces were painted to give them a realistic feel.

7. Skilled labourers and craftsmen were used

Terracotta Army

Image Credit: Costas Anton Dumitrescu/Shutterstock.com

Each body part was made separately in workshops and then moulded together before being placed in the pits. To ensure quality and craftsmanship, each piece was inscribed with its maker’s name. The colourful paint would have peeled off when the soldiers were excavated and removed from the mud.

The soldiers were also equipped with real weapons including swords, bows, arrows and pikes.

8. Over 1 million people visit the Terracotta Army every year

The Reagans standing with the Terracotta Army, 1985

Image Credit: Ronald Reagan Presidential Library, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

There is a global fascination with the Terracotta Army. Exhibitions housing artefacts have been held all over the world including the British Museum in 2007, drawing the biggest number of tourists ever for the museum.

Imperial Russia enforced a system known as the katorga, in which prisoners were punished with extreme measures including confinement and hard labour. Despite its brutality, it was seen as proof of the benefits of penal labour and would go on to inspire the future Soviet Gulag system.

Here are 11 photos of Russian Gulags and their inhabitants.

Russian prisoners at the Amur Road Camp, 1908-1913

Image Credit: Unknown authorUnknown author, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

During the Russian Revolution, Lenin established political prisons that operated outside the main judicial system, with the first labour camp being built in 1919. Under Stalin’s rule, these corrective facilities grew and led to the establishment of the Glavnoe Upravlenie Lagerei (Main Camp Administration) or Gulag. 

Female prisoners in a Gulag, 1930s.

Image Credit: UNDP Ukraine, Gulag 1930s, via Flickr CC BY-ND 2.0

The labour camps were used to inter political prisoners, POWs, those that opposed Soviet rule, petty criminals and anyone deemed undesirable. Prisoners were subjected to hard labour for months, sometimes years, at a time. Prisoners had to face sickness and starvation whilst battling the extreme cold. Over 5,000 were established across Russia, with the most remote regions like Siberia being preferred. The camps were often very basic with few facilities and constant reminders of the power and control of the Soviet Government.

Interior view of a prisoner’s accomodation with images of Stalin and Marx on the walls.

Image Credit: Interior view of prisoners' house, (1936 - 1937), Digital Collections, The New York Public Library

Gulag prisoners were often used as free labour on major construction projects. Over 200,000 prisoners were used during the building of the Moscow Canal, with thousands dying due to the harsh conditions and labour.

Though the exact number of prisoners in Gulag labour camps is unknown, it is estimated that over 18 million people were imprisoned in the period 1929-1953, with many millions succumbing to the terrible conditions.

Varlam Shalamov after his arrest in 1929

Image Credit: ОГПУ при СНК СССР (USSR Joint State Political Directorate), 1929 г., Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Born in 1907 in Vologa, Varlam Shalamov was an author, poet and journalist. Shalamov was a supporter of Leon Trotsky and Ivan Bunin. He was arrested in 1929 after joining a Trotskyist group and sent to Butrskaya prison where he had to live in solitary confinement. Subsequently released, he was again arrested for disseminating anti-Stalin literature.

At the start of the Great Purge, during which Stalin removed political rivals and other threats to his regime, Shalamov was once again arrested as a known Trotskyist and was sent to Kolyma for 5 years. After finally being released from the Gulag system in 1951, Shalamov wrote Kolyma Tales about life in the labour camp. He died in 1974.

Dombrovsky after his arrest in 1932

Image Credit: НКВД СССР, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Yury Dombrovsky was a Russian author whose noted works include The Faculty of Useless Knowledge and The Keeper of Antiquities. As a student in Moscow in 1932, Dombrovsky was arrested and exiled to Alma-Ata. He would be released and arrested several more times, being sent to various labour camps including the infamous Kolyma.

Dombrovsky would spend 18 years in prison, finally being released in 1955. He was allowed to write but he was not allowed to leave Russia. He died in 1978 after being severely beaten by a group of unknown men.

Pavel Florensky after his arrest in 1934

Image Credit: Unknown author, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Born in 1882, Pavel Florensky was a Russian polymath and priest who had extensive knowledge of philosophy, maths, science and engineering. In 1933, Florensky was arrested under the suspicion of plotting to overthrow the state and install a fascist monarchy with the help of Nazi Germany. Though the accusations were false, Florensky realised that if he admitted to them he would help gain the freedom of many friends.

Florensky was sentenced to 10 years in prison. In 1937, Florensky was sentenced to death for failing to disclose the location of Sergii Radonezhsky, a Russian saint. He, along with 500 others, was shot dead on 8 December 1937.

Sergei Korolev after his arrest in 1938

Image Credit: USSR, Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Sergei Korolev was a Russian rocket engineer who played a lead role in the space race between the USSR and the USA in the 1950s and 1960s. In 1938, Sergei was arrested on the false charge of being a “member of an anti-Soviet counter-revolutionary organization'” whilst working at the Jet Propulsion Research Institute where many leaders of the institution had been arrested and tortured for information. They accused Sergei of deliberately slowing down work at the institution. He was tortured and was imprisoned for 6 years.

14 year old Aili Jurgenson after her arrest in 1946

Image Credit: NKVD, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Aili Jurgenson was only 14 years old when she was arrested on 8 May 1946 after she and her friend Ageeda Paavel blew up a war memorial. Aili was Estonian and was protesting the Soviet occupation of Estonia. She was sent to a Gulag labour camp in Komi and was exiled from Estonia for 8 years. At the camp she married fellow Estonian and political activist Ulo Jogi.

Father Superior Simeon and Father Antonii.

Image Credit: Photographs from the Trial of the Dubches Hermits, World Digital Library

The Dubches Hermits were associated with Old Believer monasteries, dedicated to the Russian Orthodox Church prior to the 17th century reforms. To escape persecution under the Soviet government, the monasteries relocated to the Ural Mountains in an attempt to hide. In 1951, the monasteries were spotted by a plane and Soviet authorities arrested their inhabitants. Many were sent to Gulags and Father Superior Simeon died at one of the camps.

Nuns from the Dubches Convents Arrested in 1951 by the NKVD.

Image Credit: Photographs from the Trial of the Dubches Hermits, World Digital Library

Amongst those that fled to the Ural Mountain monasteries were monks and nuns, as well as peasants seeking refuge with the religious hermits. When the monasteries were spotted in 1951, many of their inhabitants – including women and youngsters – were arrested and sent to Gulags.

Berman with Gulag camp chiefs, May 1934

Image Credit: Unknown author, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Matvei Berman helped to develop the Gulag system in 1929, eventually becoming Head of the Gulag in 1932. He oversaw various projects including the White Sea-Baltic Canal construction for which he was awarded the Order of Lenin.

It is estimated that at one point, Berman was responsible for over 740,000 inmates and 15 projects across Russia. Berman’s power fell during the Great Purge and he was executed in 1939.

After heading west from England, rounding Cape Horn beneath South America and crossing the Pacific, Cook landed the Endeavour in Australia’s Botany Bay on 29 April 1770. To the British, Cook went down in history as the man who ‘discovered’ Australia – despite Aboriginal Australians having lived there for 50,000 years and the Dutch traversing its shores for centuries. Cook’s landing paved the way for the first European settlements in Australia and the establishment of Britain’s infamous penal colonies there.

To make it to Australia, Cook needed a strong, sturdy and reliable ship. Here are 6 facts about HMS Endeavour and her remarkable career.

1. When HMS Endeavour was built, she wasn’t HMS Endeavour

Launched in 1764 from Whitby, HMS Endeavour was originally Earl of Pembroke, a merchant collier (a cargo ship built to carry coal). She was built from Yorkshire oak which was known for producing tough and high-quality timber. To be able to carry coal, Earl of Pembroke needed substantial storage capacity and a flat bottom in order to be able to sail and beach in shallow waters without the need for a dock.

Earl of Pembroke, later HMS Endeavour, leaving Whitby Harbour in 1768. Painted in 1790 by Thomas Luny.

Image Credit: Thomas Luny via Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain

2. HMS Endeavour was purchased by the Royal Navy in 1768

In 1768, the Royal Navy started pulling together plans for an expedition to the South Seas. A young naval officer called James Cook was selected to lead the expedition due to his background in cartography and mathematics. An appropriate ship needed to be found. Earl of Pembroke was chosen due to her storage capacity and availability (war meant that many naval ships were needed to fight).

She was refitted and renamed Endeavour. It is believed that Edward Hawke, First Lord of the Admiralty, chose the appropriate name. At this point, however, she was known as HM Bark Endeavour, not HMS, as there was already a HMS Endeavour serving in the Royal Navy (this would change in 1771 when the other Endeavour was sold).

3. Endeavour left Plymouth on 26 August 1768 with 94 men and boys onboard

This included the usual complement of crew on a Royal Navy ship: commissioned naval officers, warrant officers, able seamen, marines, mates and servants. In Madeira, master’s mate Robert Weir was dragged overboard and drowned when he became trapped in the anchor cable. Cook pressed a sailor to replace Weir. The youngest member of the crew was the 11 year old Nicholas Young, the servant to the ship’s surgeon. In Tahiti, the crew was joined by Tupaia, a navigator, who acted as a local guide and translator.

Additionally, Cook was accompanied by natural historians, artists and cartographers. The adventurer and botanist Joseph Banks and his colleague Daniel Solander recorded 230 plant species during the expedition, 25 of which were new to the West. Astronomer Charles Green was also on board and documented the transit of Venus off the coast of Tahiti on 3 June 1769.

By the time the Endeavour was ready to return home, 90% of the crew fell ill with dysentery and malaria, likely caused by polluted drinking water. Over 30 succumbed to sickness including the ship’s surgeon.

4. Endeavour nearly didn’t make it back to Britain

Endeavour‘s circumnavigation is well documented. Leaving Portsmouth, she sailed to Funchal in the Madeira Islands and then travelled west, crossing the Atlantic to Rio de Janeiro. After rounding Cape Horn and reaching Tahiti, she sailed through the Pacific with Cook claiming islands on behalf of Britain, before finally landing in Australia.

When Endeavour sailed around the coast of Australia, she became stuck in a reef, now known as Endeavour Reef and part of the Great Barrier Reef, on 11 June 1770. Cook ordered that all extra weight and unnecessary equipment be removed from the ship to help her float. The reef had created a hole in the hull which, if removed from the reef, would cause the ship the flood. After several attempts, Cook and his crew successfully freed Endeavour but she was in a dire condition.

It was decided that they would sail to Batavia, part of the Dutch East Indies, to properly repair her before the voyage home. To reach Batavia a quick repair was made using a method called fothering, covering a leak with oakum and wool.

5. Though Cook returned a hero, Endeavour was forgotten about

After returning to Britain in 1771, Cook was celebrated but the Endeavour was largely forgotten about. She was sent to Woolwich to be refitted to be used as a naval transport and store ship, frequently operating between Britain and the Falklands. In 1775 she was sold out of the navy to a shipping company Mather & Co for £645, likely to be broken down into scrap.

However, the American Revolutionary War meant that a large number of ships were needed and Endeavour was given a new life. She was refitted and renamed Lord Sandwich in 1775 and formed part of an invasion fleet. The link between Endeavour and Lord Sandwich was only realised after extensive research in the 1990s.

In 1776, Lord Sandwich was stationed in New York during the Battle of Long Island that led to the British capture of New York. She was then used as a prison ship in Newport where she was sunk by the British in August 1778 in an attempt to ruin the harbour before a French invasion. She now rests at the bottom of Newport Harbour.

6. Several replicas of the Endeavour have been made

In 1994, a replica of the Endeavour built in Freemantle, Australia, undertook her maiden voyage. She sailed from Sydney Harbour and then followed Cook’s path from Botany Bay to Cooktown. From 1996-2002, the replica Endeavour retraced Cook’s full voyage, eventually arriving in Whitby, northern England, where the original Endeavour was built. Footage from the voyage was used in the 2003 film Master and Commander. She is now on permanent display as a museum ship in Sydney’s Darling Harbour. Replicas can be found in Whitby, at the Russell Museum in New Zealand and in the Cleveland Centre, Middlesborough, England.

Replica of Endeavour in Sydney’s Darling Harbour

Image Credit: David Steele / Shutterstock.com

We might not need to rely on replicas to see how Endeavour looked. For over 20 years, experts have searched the wrecks in Newport Harbour and, as of 3 February 2022, believe they have found the wreck of Endeavour. Kevin Sumpton, Chief Executive of the Australian National Maritime Museum announced to the public –

“We can conclusively confirm that this is indeed the wreck of Cook’s Endeavour…This is an important moment. It is arguably one of the most important vessels in our maritime history”

However, the findings have been contested and will need to be peer reviewed before confirming absolutely that the wreck is Endeavour.

After the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, it splintered into 15 independent nations and its presence was removed from many of its global military bases. Today, these abandoned bases act as an eerie reminder of the power, influence and image of the Soviet Union.

Here’s a collection of photos of former Soviet bases around the globe.

Abandoned Soviet building in Borne Sulinowo, Poland

Image Credit: Piotrbb/Shutterstock.com

After World War Two, the Soviet Union took over the military bases and town of Borne Sulinowo in Poland and established one of the biggest military camps in Poland. The town was erased from all maps, with Soviet work and occupation remaining a secret for 50 years.

Officer’s casino in Borne Sulinowo

Image Credit: Piotrbb/Shutterstock.com

Russian forces withdrew from the area in 1992 and the town officially became a part of Poland.

Irbene Soviet base in Latvia

Image Credit: Abinieks/Shutterstock.com

Irbene was a purpose-built settlement for Soviet military officers and their families. Located in Latvia and built in 1971, Irbene was used as a secret radar centre. The base included shops, a school and a sports hall. Due to the secret nature of its work, Irbene was not included on any map and only those with a special permit could visit. The town was abandoned in 1993.

Abandoned Soviet buildings in Vogelsang, Germany

Image Credit: WikiLink, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons

Due to its location in Germany, Vogelsang was an important strategic location for the Soviet Union and a barracks was established there in 1952. The town was built in the woods and was capable of housing 15,000 military personnel and their families. Vogelsang was the third-largest Soviet base in East Germany. The base was equipped with 12 nuclear missiles in 1959.

Inside the base at Vogelsang

Image Credit: Angela Serena Gilmour/Alamy Stock Photo

Sports hall in Vogelsang

Image Credit: Angela Serena Gilmour/Alamy Stock Photo

The barracks were self-contained and included a sports hall, theatre, shops, a school and a hospital. In 1994, Russian troops withdrew from the site and the town was partially demolished. Today, parts of the barracks have been left to decay and visits to the site are restricted due to the ammunition residues in the soil.

Skrunda military base in Latvia

Image Credit: Fotokon/Shutterstock.com

Skrunda military base was built in 1963 to hold 2 Dnepr radars (early Soviet space surveillance and early warning radars). These radars covered most of Western Europe and were important to the Soviet Union as they would track any possible incoming missiles or objects in space.

Cinema hall in Skrunda

Image Credit: agefotostock/Alamy Stock Photo

As with many Soviet Bases, Skrunda was self-sufficient and included many amenities and activities to keep the residents occupied.

Exercise poster from Skrunda

Image Credit: Konrad Zelazowski/Alamy Stock Photo

Inside Skrunda base

Image Credit: Laima Gūtmane, CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons

An agreement was signed between Latvia and Russia in 1994 that stated that Russia would be allowed to continue to use Skrunda for 4 years but then it must dismantle the base by 29 February 2000. In 1998, Russian troops left the town and took everything of value with them. The buildings were left to fall. In 2015, the site was bought by Skrunda Municipality for use as a military training ground. From 2016-2018, the site welcomed tourists.

Plokstine nuclear missile base

Image Credit: Audrius Venclova/Shutterstock.com

Plokstine, in Lithuania, was the Soviet Union’s first nuclear missile base. In September 1960, the Soviet Union began a rapid construction programme of Plokstine after learning that the US was building underground military bases. Its location in a remote forest and its network of underground tunnels meant that the base became one of the Soviet Union’s top military secrets (a US reconnaissance in 1978 revealed its existence). The base’s location meant that its missiles, if launched, could reach all of Europe.

The launch silo in the Plokstine missile base, now part of the Cold War Museum.

Image Credit: foundin_a_attic, CC BY 2.0, via Wikimedia Commons

The base was abandoned 12 years after it opened and was left to fall apart. In 2012, the Cold War Museum opened in the base.

Balaklava submarine base

Image Credit: Pelikh Alexey/Shutterstock.com

At the outset of the Cold War, Stalin issued secret orders to build a submarine base in case of a retaliatory nuclear strike against the US. Balaklava in Crimea was selected as it was quiet, close to the naval base at Sevastopol and had an inlet that provided natural protection. Completed in 1961, the complex was built to survive a nuclear blast and included tunnels, water channels, warehouses and dry docks.

You need to go underground to explore some of the Soviet’s abandoned military bases

Image Credit: Tinta/Shutterstock.com

Abandoned in 1993, the site was handed over to Ukraine in 2000. Today the complex holds a naval museum and a museum dedicated to the Crimean War.

Submarine repair base in Estonia

Image Credit: Yegorovnick/Alamy Stock Photo

Karosta Bunkers

Image Credit: Smiltena/Shutterstock.com

Karosta has had a naval base since 1890. During the Soviet occupation of Latvia, the base and town surrounding it were closed off and it was used as a base for the Soviet Baltic Fleet. After the site was abandoned, the buildings fell into the sea and now litter the coast.

Abandoned Soviet plane

Image Credit: cheshir.002/Shuttestock.com

Dotted across Russia and former Soviet countries are abandoned military vehicles and aircraft. They act as reminders of the military power of the Soviet Union.

Mi-8 helicopter found in Zaporizhzhia, Ukraine

Image Credit: OlgaYashkina/Shutterstock.com

Wreck of soviet military plane Ilyushin Il-14 which crashed at Graham Bell Island, 1981.

Image Credit: Alexey Seafarer/Shutterstock.com

The Soviet Union built aerodromes on Franz Joseph Island due to its strategic significance and blocked off access to all other countries. The base on Graham Bell Island was abandoned in the 1990s and the crashed plane was left there.

Abandoned Soviet tanks

Image Credit: Vladimir Mulder/Shutterstock.com

Defining features of icebreakers included thick hulls, wide and usual bow shapes and powerful engines. They would work by forcing the bow of the ship through the ice, breaking or crushing it. If the bow was unable to break through the ice, many icebreakers could also mount the ice and crush it beneath the hull of the ship. It was with the icebreaker Agulhas II that the Endurance22 expedition was able to locate Sir Ernest Shackleton’s lost ship.

To ensure economic prosperity and to have a military advantage in the icy Arctic waters, Russia needed to build the best and most durable icebreakers in the world. As such, Russia led the way in the development and construction of icebreakers. Here are 5 of the most famous Russian icebreaker ships in history.

1) Pilot (1864)

Pilot was a Russian icebreaker built in 1864 and is considered to be the first true icebreaker. She was originally a tug boat that had been converted into an icebreaker by having its bow altered. Pilot‘s new bow had been based on the designs of the historic koch ships (wooden Pomor ships that had been used around the White Sea since the 15th century). Once the conversion was finished, Pilot was used in the navigation of the Gulf of Finland, part of the Baltic Sea.

Pilot‘s ability to continue to operate during the colder months led to her design being purchased by Germany, which hoped to build ships that would be able to break through the ice in the port of Hamburg and other parts of the country. Her design would influence many other icebreakers throughout Europe.

2) Yermak (1898)

The icebreaker Yermak (also known as Ermack) assisting the battleship Apraxin in the ice.

Image Credit: Tyne & Wear Archives & Museums, No restrictions, via Wikimedia Commons

Another contender for the world’s first true icebreaker is the Russian Yermak (also known as Ermack). She was built in Newcastle upon Tyne, England, in 1897-1898 for the Russian Imperial Navy (due to the superiority of British shipbuilding and lack of adequate yards in Russia, many Russian icebreakers were built in Britain). Under the supervision of Vice-Admiral Stepan Osipovich Makarov, the design of Yermak was based on that of Pilot. Her superior strength and power meant that Yermak could break through ice up to 2m thick.

Yermak had a varied career that included setting up the first radio communication link in Russia, helping to rescue other ships that had become trapped in the ice and serving in World War One and World War Two. She saw action after the Battle of Hanko in 1941, which she supported the evacuation of Soviet soldiers out of Finland.

Yermak was retired in 1964, making her one of the longest-serving icebreakers in the world. She was important to the people of Russia and had a monument dedicated to her in 1965.

3) Lenin (1917)

One of the most famous icebreakers in history was the Russian Lenin, formally St. Alexander Nevsky. Following her construction at the Armstrong Whitworth yard in Newcastle, she was launched during the midst of World War One. The timing of her launch, shortly after the February Revolution in 1917, meant that she was immediately acquisitioned by the British Royal Navy and commissioned as HMS Alexander, serving in the North Russia campaign.

In 1921, Lenin was given back to Russia, now the Soviet Union. When she was ordered by the Russian Imperial Navy her name was to be St. Alexander Nevsky in honour of Alexander Nevsky, a key figure in Russian royal history. At the request of the Soviet government, and to represent the political change of Russia, she was named Lenin.

Lenin supported convoys through the Arctic Siberian waters, helped establish the Northern Sea Route (opening global trade for Russia) and served in World War Two. She was scrapped in 1977.

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4) Lenin (1957)

Another Russian vessel named Lenin was launched in 1957, and it was the world’s first nuclear-powered icebreaker. Nuclear power in shipping was an important step in maritime engineering. It meant that ships that were required to be at sea for prolonged periods of time or operated in extreme climates could do so without worrying about refuelling.

Lenin had a remarkable career clearing ice for cargo ships along the treacherous north Russian coast. Her service, and the dedication of her crew, led to the Lenin being awarded the Order of Lenin, the highest civilian decoration for services to the state. Today, she is a museum ship in Murmansk.

Postcard of NS Lenin, 1959. These icebreakers were a source of pride in Russia and could often be found on postcards and stamps.

Image Credit: Postal authorities of the Soviet Union, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

5) Baikal (1896)

A slightly different icebreaker, Baikal was built in 1896 in Newcastle upon Tyne to operate as a ferry on Lake Baikal, linking the eastern and western portions of the Trans-Siberian Railroad. When the Civil War broke out in Russia in 1917, Baikal was used by the Red Army and equipped with machine guns.

In 1918 Baikal was damaged during the Battle of Lake Baikal, a naval battle between Czechoslovakia and Russia during the Russian Civil War. This brought an end to her career as she was subsequently dismantled in 1926. It is believed that parts of the ship are still at the bottom of the lake.

Read more about the discovery of Endurance. Explore the history of Shackleton and the Age of Exploration. Visit the official Endurance22 website.