After Parliament declaring the children of his brother, Edward IV, illegitimate, Richard, then the Duke of Gloucester and the Lord Protector, ascended to the throne and was declared King of England.

While many speculate and debate about the validity of his accession and his involvement in the disappearance of the Princes in the Tower, all can agree that his reign ended on August 22, 1485 at the Battle of Bosworth. On this day, Richard III, and many of his closest supporters, were killed by the Lancastrian forces of Henry Tudor.

This marked the ending of one era and the beginning of another.

1. It was fought near, but not on, Bosworth Field

Despite its name, the Battle of Bosworth did not occur on Bosworth Field. In fact, it is three miles south of Market Bosworth. The battle has also been known as the Battle of Redemore Field or Dadlington Field.

In 2009, The Battlefields Trust eliminated two of the three proposed battle sites, including the popular belief that the battle occurred on Ambion Hill.

During their research and excavation, The Battlefields Trust also found over 22 cannonballs, which is the most to be found on a medieval battlefield.

2. Richard was known for his military leadership and skill

Following the death of his father, the Duke of York, Richard was brought up by Richard Neville, the Earl of Warwick. He trained as a knight in Warwick’s castles in the North, mainly Middleham Castle.

He led military campaigns along the Scottish border. Richard also fought in many decisive battles of the Wars of the Roses, such as Barnet, Tewkesbury, and Bosworth.

While contemporary sources criticise Richard’s ambition and seizing of the English throne in 1483, most also seem to agree that he was a capable military leader and fought valiantly at Bosworth.

Richard fought in the Battle of Tewkesbury.

3. Yet Henry Tudor was relatively inexperienced

After the death of Edward of Westminster at the Battle of Tewkesbury in 1471, Henry Tudor was effectively considered the only Lancastrian heir. Through his mother’s line, he could trace his lineage back to John of Gaunt, a son of Edward III and father to Henry IV.

But much of his life was in exile in Wales and France. He was cared for by his paternal uncle, Jasper Tudor, who fought alongside him.

Bosworth was considered the first military battle of Henry Tudor’s career.

4. The Yorkist troops vastly outnumbered the Lancastrians

Henry Tudor sailed over from France with around 2,000 troops. On his march to the Battle of Bosworth, his numbers at least doubled. Without initially having the pledged support of the Stanley family’s army, Henry Tudor went to battle with around 4,000-5,000 men.

But the royal army of Richard III numbered at least 10,000, if not 15,000. Therefore, the Lancastrian forces were outnumbered either 2:1 or 3:1.

5. King Richard did not actually offer to give his kingdom for a horse

Richard III.

Despite the famous lines of William Shakespeare’s Richard, the actual king did not attempt to flee the battlefield when the battle’s tide turned against him. It is said that Richard wore a crown over his helmet into battle, easily identifying himself as the king.

While some did try to convince the king to flee, he was resolved to win the battle or die alongside his men.

6. The battle was swayed by Sir William Stanley’s involvement

During the majority of the battle, both Sir William and Sir Thomas Stanley remained on the sidelines. Richard III had Thomas Stanley’s son, Lord Strange, held hostage as he attempted to coerce him into fighting for the Yorkists.

With a private army of around 6,000 men, the brothers heavily influenced the outcome of the Battle of Bosworth. It is said that the brother became involved after Richard led a direct charge on Henry, who had been separated from his main force.

The Stanley army attacked Richard’s back flank and effectively changed the outcome of the Battle of Bosworth.

7. It was the final battle of the medieval period in England

While the exact dates of the medieval period are speculated and debated on, the Battle of Bosworth is often considered one of the final moments of the medieval period in England.

The reign of Henry VII, and his dynasty who followed him, begin the early modern period of English history.

8. Richard III was the final English king to die in battle

After the death of Richard III, no English king would later die on the battlefield. Many would still lead their men and fight in battle, yet none would die.

George II would be the last English king to fight in battle in 1743.

9. Henry Tudor became Henry VII and ended the Wars of the Roses

Although it has been dismissed by experts, it was once said that Sir Thomas Stanley had found Richard’s circlet in a hawthorn bush.

Despite these exact details having no contemporary evidence, it seems true that Henry was crowned with fallen Richard’s circlet following his victory at Bosworth.

Sir Thomas Stanley hands the crown to Henry Tudor after the Battle of Bosworth. This image depicts the moment described by Polydore Vergil.

Image Credit: 216 01.10.1942 Трое мужчин хоронят умерших в дни блокады в Ленинграде. Волково кладбище. Борис Кудояров/РИА Новости

Henry would be officially crowned and anointed King Henry VII on 30 October 1485. He married Edward IV’s daughter, Elizabeth of York, and joined together the Houses of York and Lancaster.

While their union was most definitely symbolic, all accounts describe a rather happy marriage between the two.

10. But his throne was not secure after Bosworth

Despite the conflict known as the Wars of the Roses coming to a close with the Battle of Bosworth, Henry Tudor’s throne was anything but secure.

There were Yorkist uprising during his reign. Two of the most important are the uprisings behind Lambert Simnel and Perkin Warbeck. Both were considered Yorkist heirs, either as Edward, the earl of Warwick or Richard of Shrewsbury, the Duke of York.

Both were found to be pretenders. Lambert was pardoned and given a job in the royal household, but Perkin was executed on 23 November 1499.

On 7 September 1533, Henry VIII was preparing to announce the birth of a son – his long-awaited male heir – when a second daughter, Elizabeth, arrived instead. Elizabeth’s mother, Anne Boleyn, soon fell out of favour with her husband and the young princess’s life changed forever when the king executed her mother on 19 May 1536.

Living in a world dictated by the whims of her father, Elizabeth could never be too certain of her position –or her life. But despite all this, she rose to become known as one of England’s greatest rulers, a legacy that continues today. Here are 10 facts about this extraordinary monarch.

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1. She was multilingual

Elizabeth was highly educated by numerous governesses and tutors. Alongside calligraphy and music, she also learnt languages and was fluent in English, French, Latin and Italian.

Henry’s final wife, Catherine Parr, took an interest in Elizabeth’s education. Under Catherine’s care, Elizabeth learned the art of public speaking – something that was highly unusual for women at that time. Elizabeth, however, excelled at it and would go on to become known for her captivating and inspiring speeches.

2. She was nearly executed by her half-sister

Following the sudden death of Elizabeth’s younger brother, Edward VI, in 1553, no one was quite certain who would succeed him. Both Elizabeth and her elder sister, Mary, each had supporters for their claim to the throne. After Mary, a strident Catholic, ascended to the throne in July 1553, Protestants continually rebelled.

In 1554, Mary imprisoned Elizabeth for two months following Wyatt’s Rebellion, which sought to overthrow the queen. Elizabeth escaped execution by assuring Mary that she did not know anything about the rebellion. Mary kept her sister under house arrest for nearly a year before recalling her to court in 1555.

3. She was a patron of the arts

A major factor in Elizabeth I’s reign becoming known as England’s “Golden Age” were the major artistic works being produced at that time. Elizabeth enjoyed music and theatre and in 1583 created Queen Elizabeth’s Men – a royal troupe that went on to entertain her court frequently.

Meanwhile, playwrights William Shakespeare and Christopher Marlowe and composers Thomas Tallis and William Byrd were all entertaining audiences during Elizabeth’s reign.

4. She was concerned with her public image

During her reign, Elizabeth took 25 royal progresses throughout England. This helped to endear the Queen to her people. Elizabeth refused to ride in a carriage during these progresses, and, instead, rode on horseback.

5. She executed her cousin

English Roman Catholics wanted a Catholic monarch on the throne and many rebellions during Elizabeth’s reign were attempts to make the country Catholic again. When support turned to her Catholic cousin Mary, Queen of Scotland, Elizabeth acted to defend her position, imprisoning her rival.

After keeping Mary imprisoned for 19 years, Elizabeth eventually had her cousin executed at Fotheringhay Castle on 8 February 1587.

6. She inspired her men to defeat one of the greatest naval powers of the time

Elizabeth gave a rousing speech at Tilbury in 1588, right before her men set out to meet the Spanish Armada.

I know I have the body of a weak and feeble woman, but I have the heart and stomach of a king, and a king of England, too, and think foul scorn that… any prince of Europe should dare to invade the borders of my realm. … I myself will be your general, judge, and rewarder of every one of your virtues in the field.

Following this speech, her men destroyed half of the Spanish Armada.

7. She helped develop the Church of England

Following Henry VIII’s split from the Roman Catholic Church, Elizabeth was raised Protestant and went on to rule as a Protestant queen, also serving as Supremer Governor of the Church of England. During her reign, she introduced a new Book of Common Prayer and had an English translation of the Bible published.

8. She defied parliament and never married

Elizabeth I painted as the Virgin Queen by Steven van der Muelen.

Elizabeth is famously known as the “Virgin Queen”. Yet in 1566, parliament attempted to force her to marry. Elizabeth refused, declaring that she had married her country and had no intention of marrying a man in the future.

The queen was true to her word and never did marry, though rumours circulated about an affair between Elizabeth and Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester.

9. Sir Walter Raleigh named an American colony after her

During the reign of Elizabeth, European nations sent explorers across the Atlantic Ocean in search of land and riches. In 1585, Sir Walter Raleigh reached the shores of North America and named the colony Virginia after his Virgin Queen.

10. She was the last Tudor monarch

Succession problems plagued nearly every Tudor monarch. Choosing to remain unmarried, Elizabeth had no children to succeed her. After her death in 1603, she was succeeded by James VI of Scotland – son of her executed cousin Mary – who began the Stuart dynasty.

By autumn 1918, nearly 8.5 million people were dead, Germany’s morale was lower than ever and all sides were exhausted. After so much loss and destruction, World War One finally came to a halt in a train carriage on 11 November.

The 11th hour of the 11th day of the 11th month

At 5am on that day, the armistice was signed in a train carriage in Rethondes by representatives from France, Germany and Britain. It followed negotiations led by French commander Ferdinand Foch.

Six hours later, the armistice went into effect and the guns went quiet. The conditions of the armistice not only halted the fighting, however, but also provided for the start of peace negotiations and ensured that Germany could not continue the war.

In line with this, German troops had to surrender and withdraw inside Germany’s pre-war boundaries, while Germany also had to surrender most of its war materials. This included, but was not limited to, 25,000 machine guns, 5,000 pieces of artillery, 1,700 aeroplanes and all of its submarines.

The armistice also called for the abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II and the creation of a democratic government in Germany.

According to the deal, if Germany broke with any of the conditions of the armistice, fighting would resume within 48 hours.

The Treaty of Versailles

With an armistice signed, the next move was to establish peace. This began at the Paris Peace Conference in spring 1919.

Lloyd George, Clemenceau, Wilson and Orlando became known as the “Big Four”.

The conference was led by British Prime Minister David Lloyd George, French Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau, US President Woodrow Wilson and Italian Prime Minister Vittorio Orlando.

The treaty produced at the conference was drafted primarily by France, Britain and the United States. Minor Allied powers had little say, while the Central Powers had no say whatsoever.

In an attempt to balance out Clemenceau’s desire for revenge, the treaty included some of Wilson’s Fourteen Points, which espoused his idea of bringing about “a just peace” rather than just a rebalancing of power. But in the end, the agreement saw Germany severely punished.

Not only did Germany lose about 10 per cent of its territory, but it also had to take full responsibility of the war and pay war reparations. The payments totalled around £6.6 billion in 1921.

In addition, Germany’s military was also reduced. Its standing army could now only number 100,000 men, while only a few factories could manufacture ammunition and weapons. The terms of the treaty also forbid armoured cars, tanks and submarines to be built.

Unsurprisingly, Germany complained bitterly about these terms but was ultimately forced to accept these terms.

On 28 June 1919, the Treaty of Versailles, as it became known, was signed in the Hall of Mirrors – the central gallery in the Palace of Versailles in France – by the Allies and Germany.

During their visit, the couple were shot dead by Slavic nationalist Gavrilo Princip and the world was thrown into shock. Nothing would ever be the same again.

Austria-Hungary lost yet another heir

Franz Ferdinand was only the nephew of Emperor Franz Joseph, and had not been his first choice as heir. But after Franz Joseph’s only son, Rudolf, committed suicide in 1889 and his brother – Franz Ferdinand’s father – died from typhoid fever in 1896, Franz Ferdinand was next in line.

When Franz Ferdinand himself was then killed in 1914, his own children were not liable to inherit. Sophie had been of nobility but not of dynastic rank, and so Franz had had to agree to a morganatic marriage in order to receive permission from the emperor to marry her.

This meant that the couple’s children forfeited their rights to inherit the empire.

Franz’s decision to marry Sophie strained his relationship with his uncle, the emperor.

The empire was already suffering from internal political conflict and the loss of three heirs apparent in only 25 years quickened its demise.

Ethnic conflicts in the empire were further fuelled

Stretching across modern-day Austria, Bosnia-Herzegovina, the Czech Republic, Croatia, Slovakia and parts of Poland and northern Italy, the Austro-Hungarian Empire was made up of many territories which were in turn home to many different ethnic groups.

In 1908, the dual-monarchy empire had annexed Bosnia, giving rise to Slavic nationalist movements that wanted Austria-Hungary out. Franz Ferdinand, however, intended on creating a triple-monarchy, with a third state comprised of Slavic lands that would be seen as equal to Austria and Hungary.

This goal was viewed as a threat by the Slavic nationalists who wanted to secede from the empire and either join with independent Serbia or form part of a new independent state.

Members of the predominantly student Young Bosnia revolutionary group.

The day of Franz’s assassination was also Serbia’s National Day, which only served to heighten tensions between the visiting future leader of the empire and Bosnian Serbs.

Ultimately, it was members of a predominantly Bosnian Serb student revolutionary group called Young Bosnia who plotted and carried out the killing of Franz and Sophie. But another group was implicated in the assassinations too: Unification or Death, or, as it is more popularly known, the “Black Hand”.

This group, which was formed by Serbian army officers, was responsible for radicalising the Young Bosnian assassins in the cafes of Belgrade and providing them with the weapons to kill the archduke.

It served as the catalyst for World War One

Austria-Hungary blamed Serbia for the assassination of Franz, with the month that followed his killing becoming known as the July Crisis. On 23 July, the empire offered Serbia an ultimatum that contained six articles, one of which would have allowed Austrian police into Serbia.

That article was refused by Serbia, leading Austria-Hungary to declare war on Serbia on 28 July, exactly a month after Franz’s assassination.

Two days later, Russia began to mobilise troops against Austria-Hungary to defend Serbia. In response, Austria-Hungary’s ally Germany declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then went on to attack Luxembourg on 2 August and declare war on France on 3 August.

A day later, Germany declared war on Belgium and Britain responded by declaring war on Germany.

The beginning of World War One, which caused 37 million casualties and scarred the world forever, didn’t only begin because of the assassination of Franz Ferdinand. But his death was certainly the catalyst that sparked the conflict.

A member of the Habsburg family, Franz Ferdinand was the heir presumptive of the Austro-Hungarian Empire when he was killed on 28 June 1914 in Sarajevo. Here are 10 facts about him.

1. He began his military career aged just 12

It was standard for young Habsburg men to have military careers. Franz began his at the age of 12 when he entered the Austro-Hungarian Army. After becoming a major general in 1894, he was then appointed an admiral of the Austro-Hungarian Navy in 1902 and made inspector general of the Armed Forces in 1913.

It was this latter role that brought him to Bosnia in June 1914.

2. He came from an old European family

The Habsburg family originated in modern-day Switzerland. The earliest known ancestor of the Habsburgs is Guntram the Rich, who lived during the 10th century.

At the time of Franz Ferdinand, the Habsburgs were rulers of Austria-Hungary, the Holy Roman Empire, Spain and Mexico. And Franz was not the only one of his contemporaries to be assassinated: Empress Elizabeth of Austria-Hungary and Emperor Maximilian of Mexico were also killed.

3. He married for love

Sophie was not considered suitable to be a Habsburg bride.

Franz fell in love with Countess Sophie Chotek, a Czech noblewoman who was the lady-in-waiting to Archduchess Isabella. But the couple were not allowed to marry initially because of Sophie’s family; a proper Habsburg bride would be from a reigning – or formerly reigning – aristocratic European family, and Sophie wasn’t.

Upon learning of the relationship, the Austro-Hungarian emperor, Franz Joseph, refused to give his permission for the marriage. Franz and Sophie were eventually allowed to marry on 1 July 1900 but only after giving up their children’s rights to the throne.

The couple had three children: Sophie, Maximilian and Ernst.

4. He was not the original heir presumptive

Franz Ferdinand was only the nephew of Emperor Franz Joseph. But when Franz Ferdinand’s cousin Crown Prince Rudolf committed suicide in 1889, his father, Karl Ludwig, became heir to the empire. And when Karl died of typhoid fever in 1896, Franz was seen as next in line.

5. He did not get along with his uncle

The two Franz’s did not agree on much. Tensions likely began with Franz Ferdinand’s marriage to Sophie, but their relationship became further strained when Franz Ferdinand proposed political reforms unpopular with his uncle and the court.

6. He wanted to restructure the empire

Once emperor, Franz intended to create a triple monarchy consisting of the Slavs, the Germans and the Magyars. This would give Slavs a voice in government which upset the political elite.

His second plan for reform was to create a federal government comprised of 16 states.

7. His assassination wasn’t entirely unexpected

Dr Leon von Bilinski. the Austrian minister of finance, had been warned of a plot to assassinate Franz by the Prime Minister of Serbia, Nikola Pašić. But no one took the warning seriously.

8. He was assassinated by a terrorist

Radical Yugoslavist and Pan-Serb nationalism were spreading throughout Bosnia and Herzegovina during the early 20th century. The Austro-Hungarian Empire had annexed the region from the Ottoman Empire in 1908 but many living there wanted independence.

One group calling for an end to Austro-Hungarian rule in Bosnia and Herzegovina was Youth Bosnia and it was a member of this group, Gavrilo Princip, who killed Franz Ferdinand and Sophie on 28 June 1914. When Princip and his accomplices were arrested they also implicated a secret Serbian military society called “Unification or Death”.

Popularly known as the “Black Hand”, this group was formed in 1911 by members of the Serbian army who wanted to unite all territories with a South Slavic majority that were not ruled by Serbia or Montenegro.

9. Two attempts to assassinate Franz were made on 28 June 1914

During the first attempt, one of Princip’s accomplices, a man named Nedeljko Čabrinović, threw a hand grenade at the archduke’s car. But the grenade bounced off the car and fell under the vehicle behind, injuring those inside.

After this first assassination attempt failed, plans were changed – both for the archduke and his assassins.

Instead of visiting a museum as scheduled, Franz decided to visit those injured in the first assassination attempt in hospital. But during the trip his driver took a wrong turn and the car had to be stopped and pushed back.

Princip, a 19-year-old student from Belgrade, happened to be sat at a cafe close to where the archduke’s car had taken a wrong turn.

Seeing his chance to kill Franz, he drew his pistol and fired two shots, hitting Sophie in the abdomen and Franz in the neck. He had intended to commit suicide following the assassination but was arrested and later sentenced to 20 years in prison.

Franz’s assassin served little of his sentence, however, dying of an illness just four years later.

10. His assassination was the catalyst for World War One

Following Franz Ferdinand’s assassination, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. In turn, Russia, as Serbia’s ally, declared war against Austria-Hungary. Germany joined alongside Austria-Hungary to put pressure on Russia.

Then, Germany declared war against France before invading Belgium in early August, bringing Britain into the war to defend Belgium. The incident was clearly a catalyst for a war that, on the surface at least, seemed inevitable.

Though one of a number of religious orders at that time, the Knights Templar is certainly the most famous today. It was among the wealthiest and most powerful of the orders and its men have been widely mythologised – most famously through Arthurian lore as the guardians of the Holy Grail.

But just how did this order of religious men become so legendary?

The origins of the Knights Templar

Founded in the city of Jerusalem in 1119 by Frenchman Hugh de Payens, the organisation’s actual name was the Order of the Poor Knights of the Temple of Solomon.

After Jerusalem was captured by Europeans in 1099, during the First Crusade, many Christians made pilgrimages to sites in the Holy Land. But although Jerusalem was relatively secure, surrounding areas were not and so de Payens decided to form the Knights Templar in order to offer pilgrims protection.

The order derived its official name from the Temple of Solomon, which, according to Judaism, was destroyed in 587 BC and is said to have housed the Ark of the Covenant.

In 1119, King Baldwin II of Jerusalem’s royal palace was located on the former site of the temple – an area now known today as Temple Mount or Al Aqsa Mosque compound – and he gave the Knights Templar a wing of the palace in which to have their headquarters.

The Knights Templar lived under a strict discipline similar to that of Benedictine monks, even following the Rule of Benedict of Clairvaux. This meant that members of the order took vows of poverty, chastity and obedience and, for all intents and purposes, essentially lived as fighting monks.

As part of their original mission, the Knights Templar also carried out so-called “malicide”. This was another idea of Bernard of Claivaux that distinguished between “homicide” as the killing of another human being and “malicide” as the killing of evil itself.

The knights’ uniforms consisted of a white surcoat with a red cross that symbolised the blood of Christ and their own willingness to shed blood for Jesus.

A new papal purpose

The Knights Templar garnered plenty of religious and secular support. After a tour of Europe in 1127, the order began receiving large donations from nobles across the continent.

As the order grew in popularity and wealth, it came under criticism from some who questioned whether religious men should carry swords. But when Bernard of Clairvaux wrote In Praise of the New Knighthood in 1136, it silenced some of the order’s critics and served to increase the Knights Templar’s popularity.

In 1139, Pope Innocent III gave the Knights Templar special privileges; they were no longer required to pay a tithe (tax to the Church and clergy) and were answerable only to the pope himself.

The knights even had their own flag which displayed that their power was independent from secular leaders and kingdoms.

The fall of the Knights Templar

This lack of accountability to the kings and clerics of Jerusalem and Europe, coupled with the order’s growing wealth and prestige, ultimately destroyed the Knights Templar.

Since the order had been formed by a Frenchman, the order was particularly strong in France. Many of its recruits and largest donations came from the French nobility.

But the growing power of the Knights Templar made it a target of the French monarchy, which saw the order as a threat.

Under pressure from King Philip IV of France, Pope Clement V ordered the arrest of Knights Templar members across Europe in November 1307. The order’s non-French members were later exonerated. But its Frenchmen were convicted of heresy, idolatry, homosexuality and other crimes. Those who did not confess their supposed crimes were burnt at the stake.

French members of the Knights Templar were burnt at the stake.

The order was officially suppressed by papal decree in March 1312, and all its lands and wealth either given to another order named the Knights Hospitaller or to secular leaders.

But that was not quite the end of the story. In 1314, the leaders of the Knights Templar – including the order’s last grand master, Jacques de Molay – were brought out of prison and publicly burnt at the stake outside Notre Dame in Paris.

Such dramatic scenes won the knights reputations as martyrs and further fuelled the fascination with the order that has continued ever since.

Made up primarily of a volunteer army, the Battle of the Somme was the largest military offensive that the British Army had launched in 1916.

1. Before the battle, Allied forces bombarded the Germans

Following the start of the Battle of Verdun, the Allies looked to further weaken German forces. Beginning on 24 June 1916, the Allies bombarded the Germans with shelling for seven days. Over 1.5 million shells were fired, but many were defective.

2. The Battle of the Somme lasted 141 days

After the bombardment, the Battle of the Somme began on 1 July 1916. It would last for almost five months. The last battle was on 13 November 1916, but the offensive was officially suspended on 19 November 1916.

3. There were 16 divisions fighting along the Somme River

Made up of both British and French troops, 16 Allied divisions began the Battle of the Somme. Eleven divisions from the British Fourth Army were led by Sir Henry Rawlinson, who was under the commander of General Sir Douglas Haig. The four French divisions were led by General Ferdinand Foch.

4. Allied military leaders were too optimistic

The Allies had overestimated the damage done to German forces after seven days of bombardment. The German trenches were deeply dug and mostly protected from the shells.

Without accurate information about the state of the German forces, the Allies planned their offensive. The French’s resources were also relatively depleted from the Battle of Verdun, which had started in February 1916.

5. 19, 240 British were killed on the first day

The first day of the Somme is one of the bloodiest in British military history. Due to poor intelligence, the inability to focus more resources on this offensive, and the underestimating of the German forces, nearly 20,000 British troops lost their lives on day one of the 141-day offensive.

6. Soldiers’ heavy packs of equipment hindered their pace

One of the dangers of trench warfare is going over the top of the trench and entering No Man’s Land. It was important to move quickly to ensure one’s safety and effectively engage with the enemy.

But the soldiers were carrying 30kg of equipment on their backs in the first days of the battle. This slowed their pace immensely.

7. Tanks first appeared during the Battle of the Somme

On 15 September 1916, the first tanks were used. The British launched 48 Mark I tanks, yet only 23 would make it to the front. With the help of the tanks, the Allies would advance 1.5 miles.

A British Mark I tank near Thiepval.

8. Nearly 500,000 British were killed

After 141 days of battle, there was over a million casualties between the British, French, and German forces. Once the Battle of the Somme was over, 420,000 British men had lost their lives.

9. German casualties rose because of General Fritz von Below’s order

General Fritz von Below ordered his men not to lose any land to the Allies. This meant that German forces were required to counterattack in order to regain any losses. Because of this order, about 440,000 German men were killed.

10. A documentary was made in 1916

Geoffrey Malins and John McDowell created the first feature length film to include soldiers on the front. Named The Battle of the Somme, it includes shots from both before and during the battle.

Soldiers are seen moving through the trenches in Malins and McDowell’s The Battle of the Somme documentary.

While some scenes were staged, most depict the gruesome reality of war. The film was first shown on 21 August 1916; within two months it had been seen by more than 2 million people.

The image depicts the moment that six marines hoisted a large American flag on Iwo Jima’s highest point. It was actually the second American flag to be raised on Mount Suribachi that day. But, unlike the first, could be seen by all of the men fighting on the island.

The historic and heroic moment captured by Joe Rosenthal for the Associated Press.

The Battle of Iwo Jima

The Battle of Iwo Jima began on 19 February 1945 and lasted until 26 March of that year.

One of the hardest-fought victories of the battle was the capture of Mount Suribachi, a southern volcano on the island. Many say it was the raising of the American flag on the volcano that inspired US troops to persevere and eventually overcome the Japanese Imperial Army on Iwo Jima.

While the battle resulted in victory for the United States, the losses involved were heavy. US forces counted about 20,000 casualties and the battle was one of the bloodiest in the Pacific theatre of World War Two.

The men who raised the second flag

Earlier in the day, a small American flag had been raised. Due to its size, however, most US troops could not see the small flag waving from Mount Suribachi. Therefore, six Marines hoisted up a second, much larger American flag.

These men were Michael Strank, Harlon Block, Franklin Sousley, Ira Hayes, Rene Gagnon, and Harold Schultz. Strank, Block and Sousley went on to died on Iwo Jima less than a month after the raising of the flag.

Until 2016, Harold Schultz had been misidentified and was never publicly recognised for his part in the flag raising during his lifetime. He died in 1995.

Previously, it was believed that the sixth man was John Bradley, a Navy hospital corpsman. Bradley’s son, James Bradley, wrote a book about his father’s involvement called Flags of Our Fathers. It is now known that Bradley senior took place in the first flag raising on 23 February 1945.

An image of triumph

Based on Rosenthal’s photograph, the Marine Corps War Memorial stands in Arlington, Virginia.

Rosenthal’s historic image became one of the most well-known of the war. It was used by the Seventh War Loan Drive and printed on more than 3.5 millions posters.

Ira Hayes, Rene Gagnon and John Bradley toured the nation after returning home from Iwo Jima. They rallied support and advertised war bonds. Because of the posters and national tour, the Seventh War Loan Drive raised more than $26.3 million for the war effort.

The raising of the flag at Iwo Jima inspired a nation to continue the fight and Rosenthal’s photograph still resonates with the American public today.

The Sturmabteilung (SA)

The SA began in 1921 by Adolf Hitler. The majority of early members are disgruntled former soldiers who fought during World War I. The SA worked as a paramilitary force which worked mainly to intimidate political rivals during the early rise of the Nazi Party. This force was often known as Stormtroopers or Brownshirts because of their uniform.

In 1923, The Beer Hall Putsch in Munich sparked a failed coup supported by the SA. On 9 November 1923, Hitler and the 600 SA members attempted to overthrow the Weimar Republic. Hitler was arrested two days after the failed coup.

Following the Beer Hall Putsch, Adolf Hitler was arrested. In prison, he wrote Mein Kampf.

Led by Ernst Röhm from 1931 to 1934, it was distinctly separate from the German army and often used street violence to intimidate Nazi opposition. Quickly growing in numbers due to the Great Depression, the SA was much larger than the army and likely was made up of about 2,000,000 men.

On 30 June 1934, Röhm and the other leaders of the SA were purged. This night is now known as The Night of the Long Knives. Following the execution of its leaders, the SA was led by Viktor Lutze until his death in 1943. The SA would play a major role in Kristallnacht on 9-10 November 1938.

Beginning as the paramilitary force behind the rise of the Nazi Party, it soon became of lesser importance. Its role during much of the war was the train the German military.

The Schutzstaffel (SS)

In April 1925, the SS began as a group of bodyguards for Adolf Hitler. With the fall of the SA following The Night of the Long Knives, the SS became the superior paramilitary force in Nazi Germany. This force was under the control of Heinrich Himmler and answered only to Hitler himself.

The SS was recognisable by their black uniforms. The collar of these uniforms had the two runic S’s, which looked like lightening bolts. Other recognisable insignias included death’s head badges and silver daggers.

An SS officer inspecting his troops’ uniforms.

From its beginning as the personal bodyguards of Hitler and other Nazi leaders, the SS quickly expanded both in size and in responsibility. By the start of World War II in 1939, the SS was about 250,000 men.

Divided into two groups, a SS member was either a part of the Allgemeine-SS or the Waffen-SS. The Allgemeine-SS was in charge of the various police forces, such as the Sicherheitspolizei (Sipo), Kriminalpolizei (Kripo), and Gestapo.

They also oversaw the intelligence department, which was known as the Sicherheitsdienst (SD). The Waffen-SS was further divided into three groups: Leibstandarte (Hitler’s bodyguards), Totenkopfverbände (administrators at concentration and death camps), or Verfügungstruppen (elite combat troops).

The motto members of the SS had to live by was: “Thy honour is thy loyalty.” They were expected to be loyal to Adolf Hitler above all others.

Following the end of the war, the SS was characterised as a criminal organisation at the Nürnberg’s Allied Tribunal in 1946.

One of the most significant confrontations of the Pacific War began on 4 June 1942 when Japanese planes launched bombing raids on Midway, a group of islands under US control. Here are 10 facts about the battle.

1. US intelligence detected that an attack was coming

Japan’s Naval General Operational Code used book ciphers, making it significantly easier to break than the Germans’ Enigma and Lorenz codes. As a result, US troops had been alerted earlier in the year that Japan was planning an attack.

2. The Midway attack was commanded by the same man who oversaw Pearl Harbour

Chuichi Nagumo went on to kill himself in the later Battle of Saipan.

Chuichi Nagumo was the vice admiral of the Japanese Navy and commander of the Japanese First Air Fleet. Following his successful attack on Pearl Harbour, he commanded all attacks in the Pacific and Indian Oceans.

3. It was one of two simultaneous attacks launched by Japan

At the beginning of the Battle of Midway, the Japanese Army was also attempting to invade the Aleutian Islands. Some believe the Aleutian attack was launched to draw US forces away from Midway, making the latter invasion easier for the Japanese.

4. The US was still recovering from Pearl Harbour

The US Air Force and Navy were majorly depleted in the surprise 1941 attack. All eight of the navy’s battleships were damaged, with two lost completely and the rest taken out of commission. This meant that the US had none available to fight in the Battle of Midway.

5. American vessels were seriously outnumbered

A map of the Battle of Midway produced by the United States Military Academy.

The Japanese attack on Midway involved four aircraft carriers, seven battleships, 150 support ships, 248 carrier aircraft and 15 submarines. The US defence, meanwhile, was made up of just three aircraft carriers, 50 support ships, 233 carrier aircraft, 127 land-based aircraft on Midway and eight submarines.

6. The Japanese were expected to win

Considering the numbers, many thought the Japanese would win the battle and invade Midway. It had been more than 50 years since the Japanese Navy had lost a battle.

7. Yet the US won

Despite their vessels being vastly outnumbered, successful US intelligence and careful planning led to a decisive victory for the Americans.

8. The Japanese suffered major losses

After four days of battle, Japan withdrew from Midway on 7 June. In their attempt to invade the US territory, the Japanese lost nearly 300 aircraft, all four of its aircraft carriers and 3,500 men.

9. But they did sink a US aircraft carrier

The aircraft carrier USS Yorktown is hit by a Japanese torpedo during the Battle of Midway.

Despite its ultimate failure at Midway, Japan did destroy a number of US aircraft and naval vessels, including one destroyer and the aircraft carrier USS Yorktown.

10. It was a turning point in the Pacific

The US had been on the defence in the Pacific theatre since the attack on Pearl Harbour. But after the Battle of Midway, Japan and the US more or less switched roles, with the former spending much of the rest of the war defending – rather than attacking – territories in the Pacific.