Though best remembered for his boxing and anti-war activism, Ali was also a talented poet who incorporated his artistic endeavours into his athletic pursuits, and later campaigned for rights for those suffering from Parkinson’s disease. 

Here are 10 facts about Muhammad Ali. 

1. He was named after anti-slavery activist Cassius Marcellus Clay

Muhammad Ali was born Cassius Marcellus Clay Jr on 17 January 1942 in Louisville, Kentucky. He and his father were named after a white farmer and abolitionist, Cassius Marcellus Clay, who emancipated 40 people previously enslaved by his father.

As a fighter, Clay became a member of the Nation of Islam alongside Malcolm X and had his name changed to Muhammad Ali by his mentor Elijah Muhammad on 6 March 1964.

2. He began fighting after his bike was stolen

Cassius Clay and his trainer Joe E. Martin. 31 January 1960.

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons

When his bike was stolen, Clay went to the police. The officer was a boxing trainer and suggested the 12-year-old learned to fight, so he joined the gym. 6 weeks later, Clay won his first boxing match.

By 22, Ali was the world heavyweight champion, defeating the reigning champion Sonny Liston. It was in this fight that Clay famously promised to “float like a butterfly and sting like a bee”. He would soon become internationally renowned for his fast footwork and powerful punches.

3. He won an Olympic gold medal in 1960

In 1960, 18-year-old Clay travelled to Rome to represent the US in the boxing ring. He defeated all his opponents and won a gold medal. Upon his return to the United States, he was refused service at a diner in his home state while wearing his medal because of his race. He later told reporters that he threw the medal off a bridge into the Ohio River.

4. He refused to fight in the Vietnam War

In 1967, Ali refused to join the US Military and fight in the Vietnam War, citing religious reasons. He was arrested and stripped of his title. Further, the New York State Athletic Commission suspended his boxing license, and he was convicted of draft evasion, sentenced to prison and fined. During his suspension from boxing, Ali took up acting in New York for a brief time and performed in the title role of Buck White. 

Preacher Elijah Muhammad addresses followers including Muhammad Ali, 1964.

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons

He appealed his conviction, and in 1970, the New York State Supreme Court ordered his boxing license to be reinstated. The US Supreme Court would go on to overturn the entirety of Ali’s conviction in 1971.

5. He was a poet

Muhammad Ali was known to compose verses with which he would taunt his opponents in the boxing ring. He preferred iambic pentameter. In 1963, he recorded a spoken word album called I Am the Greatest. His talk in the ring earned him the nickname the ‘Louisville Lip’.

6. Ali won 56 of the 61 professional fights of his career

Throughout his career, Ali defeated many fighters like Sonny Liston, George Foreman, Jerry Quarry and Joe Frazier. With each victory, Ali gained popularity and further solidified his reputation as heavyweight champion. Across his 56 victories, he delivered 37 knockouts.

7. He experienced his first loss as a pro in the ‘Fight of the Century’

Ali vs. Frazier, promotional photo.

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons

After his license was reinstated, Ali worked his way back to the heavyweight championship. On 8 March 1971, he entered the ring against the undefeated Joe Frazier. Frazier would defend his championship title, beating Ali in the final round.

This night was dubbed the ‘Fight of the Century’ and landed Ali his first defeat as a professional boxer. He would go 10 more fights before losing again, and in 6 months’ time, he even defeated Frazier in a non-title match.

8. He fought in the ‘Rumble in the Jungle’ against George Foreman

In 1974, Ali went toe to toe with undefeated champion George Foreman in Kinshasa, Zaire (now the Democratic Republic of the Congo). Zaire’s president at the time wanted positive publicity for the country and offered each of the fighters $5 million to fight in Africa. To ensure the fight would be viewed by an American audience, it took place at 4:00 am.

Ali won in 8 rounds and regained his heavyweight title after losing it 7 years prior. He employed a new strategy against Foreman, leaning on the ropes to absorb the blows from Foreman until he was tired out.

9. He was the first boxer to win the world heavyweight title 3 times

Ali won the heavyweight title 3 times in his career. First, he beat Sonny Liston in 1964. Upon his return to boxing, he defeated George Foreman in 1974. For the third chance at the title, Ali defeated Leon Spinks in 1978 after losing his title to him just 7 months earlier. This victory meant he was the first boxer in history to win the title 3 times.

10. He was diagnosed with Parkinson’s disease at age 42

President George W. Bush Embraces Muhammad Ali, 2005 Recipient of the Presidential Medal of Freedom.

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons

Ali retired from boxing in 1979, to briefly return in 1980. He would retire for good in 1981 at age 39. At age 42, he was diagnosed with Parkinson’s disease after showing signs of slurred speech and slowness. Nonetheless, he still made public appearances and travelled around the world for humanitarian and charitable causes.

In 2005, he was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom. He died of septic shock as the result of a respiratory illness in 2016.

12 of the 13 colonies gathered in Carpenter’s Hall from 5 September to 26 October 1774 to discuss boycotting British goods and establishing rights for colonists. Additionally, they made plans for a second gathering in the near future. This event exemplified a growing defiance against British rule, raising important questions; namely, who had the right to govern the colonies and how?

What event prompted the formation of the First Continental Congress?

In early 1774, Britain passed the Coercive Acts – known in the colonies as the Intolerable Acts – which were a reaction to the Boston Tea Party in December 1773, which saw American protestors destroy a shipment of British tea. The Acts reasserted British dominance and punished the colonies for the rebellion.

The Boston Tea Party

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons / Cornischong at lb.wikipedia / Public Domain

Part of the Coercive Acts closed off the Boston Port and rescinded the Massachusetts Charter to punish the rebels in Massachusetts especially, but it also impacted the colonies at large and gave them less control to govern themselves. As a result, colonists as far south as Georgia shipped goods up to Massachusetts, and by spring, there was a call to organise a continental congress. 

Who attended the First Continental Congress?

In early September 1774, 55 delegates from 12 of the 13 colonies gathered in Philadelphia. Georgia was the only colony that did not send any delegates, as they were on the verge of war with neighbouring indigenous tribes and did not want to lose British military support. Delegates at the gathering were elected by the public directly, by local legislatures or by committees of correspondence within the respective colonies.

Delegates from New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina and Massachusetts arrived at Carpenter’s Hall and included Samuel Adams, George Washington and John Adams. Peyton Randolph was elected president of the convention and would preside over the delegates as they debated the future of the colonies. Each state’s delegates arrived with different desirable outcomes in mind; however, the purpose of the gathering was to present a united front against Britain.

What were the struggles of the First Continental Congress?

The First Continental Congress met from 05 September to 26 October 1774, in Carpenters’ Hall in Philadelphia

Image Credit: Zack Frank / Shutterstock.com

Despite the differences in desirable outcomes, all of the delegates agreed that the King and Parliament must understand the grievances of the colonies, and these grievances needed to be communicated to the whole of America as well. This was, however, the first time that the colonies were acting in union, as up until this point they had always acted independently of each other. There was a bit of distrust and discomfort to overcome if they were to work towards shared goals.

The First Continental Congress struggled to form a list of rights, grievances and demands. It was therefore necessary to create a Grand Committee to address larger issues of British abuse. The delegates debated for weeks, attempting to create a statement that would answer questions that had been plaguing colonies for over a century. How would they answer the question of Britain’s right to regulate trade? 

One solution came from Pennsylvania delegate Joseph Galloway. A Plan of Union was drafted to create a Colonial Parliament that would work alongside the British Parliament. The intention would be for the British monarch to appoint a President General so that the colonies could have greater control over trade and commerce. Ultimately, this plan was voted down, and the delegates returned to the Continental Association. Eventually, the First Continental Congress successfully organised an economic boycott of British trade and delivered a petition for redress of grievances to King George III and Parliament.

What did the First Continental Congress achieve?

The first act of the congress was to support the Suffolk Resolves that had already passed in Suffolk County, Massachusetts. Here, citizens were ordered not to obey the Intolerable Acts, to refuse British goods and to raise a militia. Next, they began drafting the Continental Association. This called for an end to British imports and an end to the exporting of goods to Britain. This would be enforced by local committees checking ships, having colonists sign documents pledging loyalty to the Continental Association, and suppressing mob violence. As a result, imports from Britain dropped by 95% in 1775 compared to the previous year. 

Using non-importation as leverage was not a new idea, as 8 colonies had already endorsed the measure ahead of the gathering and others had already began working to ban importation. In fact, future president George Washington had been advocating for non-importation as early as 1769, which can be found in letters between Washington and George Mason. At this stage, many delegates believed it was too late to appeal to the British Parliament by petitioning. It would no longer be useful to change Parliament’s ways. 

Portrait of George Washington by Gilbert Stuart

Image Credit: Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Though the first gathering in Carpenter’s Hall proved fruitful, there was still work to be done to create explicit demands. Eventually, delegates were able to draft a Declaration of Rights which included life, liberty, property and the right to establish their own taxes within the colonies. The final draft was approved on 14 October 1774, in which King George and Parliament were warned a revolution would occur if the demands were not met.

By the end of the first gathering, after 51 days of deliberation, the delegates decided a Second Continental Congress would reconvene the following spring. Their intention was to give Britain time to respond to the Continental Association and discuss any developments. In this time, several delegates, including George Washington, purchased muskets and began studying military strategy.

Though a war had not yet been declared, many were starting to believe that one was inevitable, as Britain would not redress. As these delegates returned to Philadelphia in the spring of 1775, they learned of the Battles of Lexington and Concord that would mark the start of the Revolutionary War. 

His presidency was defined by a quasi-war with France. He was a determined Federalist, and his letters to Thomas Jefferson after they had both left office provide some of the greatest insight into early American political theory to date. His role in shaping the American Revolution and early American politics was monumental.

Here’s the story of John Adams, America’s second president.

Where was John Adams born?

John Adams was born in Massachusetts in 1735, and his family could trace their lineage to the first generation of Puritan settlers that arrived on the Mayflower voyage. In his youth, his father encouraged him to go into the ministry.

Adams attended Harvard and worked for a few years teaching before ultimately deciding to pursue law instead. He married Abigail Smith in 1764. She would become a confidante and political partner throughout his career. One of their children, John Quincy Adams, would also serve as an American President. 

Abigail Adams, 1766

Image Credit: Benjamin Blyth, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Was John Adams a patriot or loyalist?

A patriot, in 1765 Adams published an essay titled A Dissertation on the Canon and Feudal Law which opposed the Stamp Act passed by the British that same year. He argued that Parliament exposed themselves as corrupt by intruding in colonial affairs – specifically by requiring all publications and legal documents to bear a stamp. He continued to be a leader in Massachusetts, dissenting against future policies like the Townshend Acts. This would earn him a reputation that would lead to his involvement in the formation of a new country.

However, he did defend British soldiers who had fired into a crowd in the Boston Massacre of 1770 – arguing that they had been provoked and were defending themselves. Though this position lost him some favour, it showed to others his dedication to upholding legal rights and doing the right thing, even if it made him unpopular. He believed the soldiers deserved a fair trial, even if their actions were despicable in the public eye.

Because of his actions and strong moral compass, he was elected to the First Continental Congress in 1774, joining delegates from 12 of the 13 original colonies in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. He and his cousin, Samuel Adams, were considered radical, as they completely opposed reconciliation with Britain. He argued that King George III and Parliament not only lacked the authority to tax the colonies, but they also had no right to legislate them in any way. 

The Boston Massacre, 1770

Image Credit: Paul Revere, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons

What role did John Adams play in the Revolutionary War?

John Adams was responsible for nominating George Washington as the commander of the Continental Army. Further, he chose Thomas Jefferson as the man to draft the Declaration of Independence. He did this to ensure Virginia’s support in joining the revolution, which was uncertain, as both men represented the colony. 

Further, Adams wrote Thoughts on Government, which was distributed throughout the colonies to help draft state constitutions. In 1776, he also drafted the Plan of Treaties which would serve as the framework for securing France’s assistance in the war. He created the American navy and equipped the army as the head of the Board of War and Ordnance. He drafted the Massachusetts constitution in 1780, which was modelled again by other states. One aspect of this state constitution that would transfer to the US Constitution was the separation of powers. 

As the Revolutionary War waged on, John Adams joined Benjamin Franklin in Paris to negotiate peace between Britain and the United States. Adams was considered confrontational by other delegates, which made it difficult to negotiate with him; however, Franklin was more discrete, so together they were able to get the job done. Adams and his family would spend several more years in Europe, with Adams serving as a diplomat. They returned to the US in 1789 where Adams was promptly voted in as the first Vice President of the United States of America. 

Was John Adams a Federalist?

John Adams was a Federalist, meaning he favoured a strong national government as well as commercial and diplomatic harmony with Britain. The Federalist Party made a lasting impact on the early years of American politics by creating a national judicial system and formulating principles of foreign policy. It was one of the first two political parties in the US and was organized during George Washington’s first administration, founded on expanding national power over state power. It would eventually split into the Democratic and Whig parties.

After Washington served two terms without desiring to be elected for a third, Adams was then elected president of the United States in 1796. As the first president to live in the White House, Adams would serve only one term, losing his bid for re-election to Thomas Jefferson in 1800. 

Official presidential portrait of John Adams

Image Credit: John Trumbull, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Was John Adams a good president?

Adams’ presidency was marked by an unpopular quasi-war with France that hurt his presidency, even though it was a conflict inherited from George Washington. Washington had declared neutrality in conflicts between Britain and France, but in 1795 a treaty was signed with the British that was interpreted by the French as being hostile. France had been hoping for American support during their revolution as a sign of gratitude for France’s help during the American Revolution. Adams would attempt to negotiate peace with France, but French diplomats demanded bribes in exchange for a peaceful negotiation, which Adams’ administration refused. As a result, French ships began attacking American ports, and an undeclared war ensued in the seas.

As a Federalist, Adams was pro-war, so even though he knew the United States could not afford another war, it was part of his core political belief. However, he did seek a peaceful resolution on more than one occasion, recognizing the risks to trade and security, while wearing full military uniform to assert himself as Commander-in-Chief in public.

Others in the government remained friendly with France, including Thomas Jefferson, who were still grateful for France’s assistance in the Revolutionary War, and Adams was often undermined by his cabinet as a result. Alexander Hamilton in particular, who would succeed him, would speak out against him. During this time, Adams passed the Alien and Sedition Acts, which limited freedom of speech, an act that caused great public outcry. Though peace would come and the Acts would expire, it would occur only after Adams had been voted out of office. 

John Adams, c. 1816, by Samuel Morse

Image Credit: Samuel Finley Breese Morse, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

What did John Adams do after his presidency?

After serving as president, John Adams returned to Massachusetts with Abigail to live out the rest of his days, including seeing his son, John Quincy, become president as well. He took up correspondence with Thomas Jefferson, an old friend turned rival, to discuss political theory. These letters are a comprehensive look at the minds of two Founding Fathers on religion, philosophy, politics, and more.

Both men died on 4 July 1826, on the 50th anniversary of the Declaration of Independence, passing within hours of each other and leaving legacies as founders of American independence.  

In addition to helping to draft the Declaration of Independence and being a delegate at the Constitutional Convention, Franklin was a printer, publisher, author, inventor and diplomat. Throughout his life, Franklin used prose to influence those around him and was formative in helping to create the foundations of the United States.

Who was Benjamin Franklin, and how did he become a Founding Father of the United States?

Franklin’s first love was writing

Franklin originally enjoyed writing poetry, and built upon his reading and writing knowledge during a printing apprenticeship. However, he soon began writing prose and developed a sophisticated command of written language.

Benjamin Franklin (center) at work on a printing press. Reproduction of a Charles Mills painting by the Detroit Publishing Company, c. 1914.

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons

In 1722, Franklin wrote a series of 14 satirical and witty essays under the pseudonym ‘Silence Dogood’, which he submitted to his brother’s newspaper, The Courant. The reaction was overwhelmingly positive. From 1733 to 1758, Franklin published Poor Richard’s Almanack under the pseudonym Richard Saunders. The Almanack contained famous phrases such as “early to bed and early to rise, makes a man healthy, wealthy and wise”.

Franklin travelled between Philadelphia and London for years

Born in Boston, Massachusetts, Franklin didn’t enjoy the city. He left to find work elsewhere, stopping in New York City before heading to Philadelphia, where he gained employment as a printer. He had hoped to start his own business, and the Governor of Pennsylvania, William Keith, suggested that he go to London and make connections before opening his own print shop in the States. However, Franklin left Philadelphia for London without receiving the letters of recommendation Keith had promised.

Franklin quickly found employment in London and enjoyed socializing in the city. In 1726, he was offered a clerkship in Philadelphia that promised to earn him high commissions, so he returned home again. 

Franklin retired aged 42

By 1748, Franklin had earned enough money to retire from active business. He continued to be a silent partner in his printing firm, Franklin and Hall, but now focused his time on ‘philosophical students and amusements’. Included in his ‘amusements’ was research into science and electricity, which he published papers on in 1751 to international acclaim.

In 1752, Franklin stood in a thunderstorm with a key attached to a kite to investigate the source of lightning and better understand electricity. He also created the distinction between insulators and conductors, amongst other discoveries. He is also credited with inventing bifocals, the Franklin stove and the glass armonica.

He was a public servant for the city of Philadelphia

In addition to scientific pursuits, Franklin also took to public service in his retirement. He served as a member of the Philadelphia City Council in 1748 and then deputy postmaster general for all of the colonies in 1753. He also spent 18 years in London as an agent of the Pennsylvania Assembly.

In 1751, Franklin co-founded Pennsylvania Hospital in Philadelphia, one of the first hospitals in the United States (depicted in this engaving by William Strickland, 1755).

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons

His printing business became increasingly successful throughout the 1730s, and he launched a lending library, the first volunteer fire company, the American Philosophical Society, a hospital and a college that went on to become the University of Pennsylvania.

Who was Benjamin Franklin, Founding Father?

The Stamp Act of 1765 required all printed materials in the American colonies to carry a tax stamp. This frustrated those living in the colonies since they were being taxed without representation. Franklin was living in London at the time the act was passed and testified against it. The Stamp Act was repealed in 1766; however, it had stirred anti-British sentiments that further stoked the flames of the American Revolution.

On his return to Philadelphia in May 1775, Franklin was selected as a delegate to the Second Continental Congress and helped draft the document that declared the Americas free from British rule. He was then sent to France where he successfully enlisted the government’s help with the Revolutionary War, which proved critical to getting soldiers, supplies and money to the colonies throughout the conflict.

This Join, or Die by Franklin urged the colonies to join the French and Indian War (Seven Years’ War). It later served as a symbol of colonial freedom during the American Revolution.

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons

Franklin remained in France for several years and later negotiated the Treaty of Paris to end the war. After the war ended, he served as a delegate at the Constitutional Convention.

What is one thing Benjamin Franklin is famous for?

He is the only Founding Father to have signed all four documents that are considered key to the establishment of the United States in the Revolutionary period: the Declaration of Independence, the Treaty of Alliance with France, the Treaty of Paris and the US Constitution.

His motion to approve the US Constitution was critical to its passing

At the Constitutional Convention in 1787, there were fierce debates about what should be included in the document that would establish a new county. Though Franklin himself did not approve of everything in the Constitution, he wrote a speech to encourage all of the delegates to ratify it.

The oldest delegate at the convention, Franklin was unable to deliver the speech himself, but his message was nonetheless delivered effectively. After the document was voted on and ratified, Franklin was asked what kind of government the US would have, to which he supposedly replied, “a republic, if you can keep it.”

He continued in service to his community after his death

Benjamin Franklin died in 1790, a year after the US Constitution was ratified, at the age of 84. His funeral was attended by at least 20,000 people, and he was buried in Philadelphia’s Christ Church. In his will, he left a combined total of $4,000 to his hometown of Boston and his adopted home of Philadelphia.

Franklin on the Series 2009 hundred dollar bill.

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons

These gifts were under strict instruction not to be drawn out for 100 years and could not be distributed for 200 years. When the time had passed, the cities decided to use the money in various ways, including giving personal loans to citizens and opening museums in his honour. This last gesture shows how invested Franklin was in the United States and its success for centuries to come.

The name Ub Iwerks has not always been synonymous with Mickey Mouse – that would be most associated with Walt Disney – but the iconic character was a group effort and co-creation. Without Iwerks, Mickey Mouse might not have ever been created.

Here’s the story of Ub Iwerks, the animator behind Mickey Mouse.

Ub Iwerks and Walt Disney became friends and business partners in 1919

Iwerks met and befriended Walt Disney at 18 at the Pesman-Rubin Commercial Art Studio in Kansas City, Missouri. The pair taught themselves animation and began working professionally together.

After several failed ventures in Kansas City, including an animation studio called Laugh-O-gram Films, Disney moved to Los Angeles, with Iwerks following shortly after. The pair became successful partners, with Iwerks’ creativity and artistic talents complementing Disney’s vision and salesmanship.

The pair created several animated characters before Mickey Mouse

One of Iwerks and Disney’s earliest characters were Oswald the Lucky Rabbit, a character that the business partners would later lose rights to. This pushed them to create the character of Mickey Mouse, with Disney focusing on characterization and Iwerks on animation. Iwerks was renowned for working quickly, creating a record 700 drawings a day – a feat that would have taken other artists months to complete.

Iwerks worked late into the night, but the hard work paid off. In 1928, the pair released their first Mickey Mouse cartoon, Plane Crazy. When their third film, Steamboat Willie, was released in 1928, they had a hit, and Mickey Mouse would soon become a household name. In addition to creating the animation, Iwerks is responsible for giving Mickey the buttoned shirt and white gloves that he’s known for today. He also created Minnie Mouse, the first major female animated character.

Mickey Mouse in Steamboat Willie, 1928.

Iwerks went off on his own for a decade before returning to Disney Studios

Iwerks wanted more creative and experimental freedom and went off on his own in 1930, becoming an independent producer. This caused a rift in Disney and Iwerks’ friendship, as Iwerks had signed for work with a bitter rival of Disney’s, Pat Powers, one of the co-founders of Universal Pictures whom Disney had ongoing legal trouble with.

Disney, Iwerks and Powers had worked together on Steamboat Willie, with Powers helping with distribution; however, Disney and Powers’ relationship turned sour after they had a dispute over box office receipts.

While on his own, Iwerks’ most notable cartoon character was Flip the Frog, though he never gained the popular success that Mickey Mouse had garnered. Iwerks’ studio went bankrupt after 6 years. Before returning to Disney, he worked on other productions, including Porky Pig. A decade after leaving, he returned to Disney Studios in 1940, on the condition that he got more artistic freedom to experiment. He worked there for the rest of his career in technical effects.

Walt Disney with a drawing of Mickey Mouse. 1931.

Image Credit: Harris & Ewing collection, Library of Congress via Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain

Iwerks made significant advancements in animation and special effects

While on his own, Iwerks opened his own studio where he developed the multiplane camera, which created a three-dimensional effect on screen. Disney would go on to use this camera in Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937) and is often credited with its creation, though it came 2 years after Iwerks’ invention.

Back at Disney Studios, Iwerks also found a way to combine animation with live-action. This development allowed Hayley Mills to appear as twin characters on screen together in The Parent Trap (1961), and it resulted in the animated penguins dancing with Dick Van Dyke’s character in Mary Poppins (1964). Further, he designed several attractions for Disney’s theme parks in California and Florida.

Iwerks’ studies in optical printing would later contribute to Star Wars: A New Hope (1977). Iwerks continued creating, and after World War Two his work was influenced by anime artists like Osamu Tezuka.

Lobby card for the animated film Mary’s Little Lamb, 1935. Artwork by Ub Iwerks.

Iwerks’ granddaughter fought for credit for her grandfather after his death

Iwerks did receive some recognition for his contributions to animation, winning Academy Awards for his achievements in 1960 and 1965 and a nomination for his work in Alfred Hitchcock’s The Birds (1963). He died in 1971, 3 months before the opening of Disney World. After his death, his granddaughter, Leslie Iwerks, felt her grandfather wasn’t getting the credit he deserved for his innovations, and she made a documentary about him in an effort to rectify that.

Ultimately, the creation of Mickey Mouse was a team effort, and Ub Iwerks’ contributions and inventions to animations were critical to Disney Studios’ success. Disney gave Mickey Mouse a voice, and the tireless work of animator Ub Iwerks brought the character to life and resulted in the early success of the company.

As King attempted to get up, police officers beat him with batons, striking him 56 times. Meanwhile, George Holliday filmed the unfolding scene from the balcony of an apartment building across the street.

After King was arrested, Holliday sold the 89-second video to a local TV station. The video quickly made national headlines. However, on 29 April 1992, the country watched as 4 officers were acquitted for their assault on Rodney King.

3 hours after the verdict was read, 5 days of riots broke out in the city of Los Angeles, California, which left more than 50 people dead and triggered a national conversation about racial and economic inequality and police brutality in the USA.

The police assault resulted in King having permanent brain damage

Rodney King was on parole when he attempted to evade police officers on 3 March. After his car was stopped, he was kicked and beaten by Laurence Powell, Theodore Briseno and Timothy Wind while over a dozen other officers watched, including Sergeant Stacey Koon.

Holliday’s video depicts the officers kicking and beating King repeatedly – long after he could even attempt to defend himself – resulting in skull fractures, broken bones and teeth, as well as permanent brain damage. When reports were filed by Koon and Powell after the incident, they did not realize they had been videotaped, and they downplayed their use of force.

They claimed King had charged them, though King said the officers threatened to kill him so he was attempting to run for his life. None of the dozen officers watching attempted to intervene as King was beaten.

The video footage helped bring the officers to trial

Reduced resolution screenshot from nationally televised footage of Rodney King beating (3 March 1991). The original video was shot by George Holliday.

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons

On 15 March, after the video had been played repeatedly on news stations across the United States, Sergeant Koon and Officers Powell, Wind and Briseno were indicted by a grand jury for assault with a deadly weapon and excessive use of force by a police officer. 

Though Koon did not actively participate in the beating, he was charged alongside the others as he was their commanding officer. King was released without being charged. Residents of LA believed the footage of the attack on King made it an open and shut case.

The trial had been moved outside of the city to Ventura County because of the attention on the case. The jury, which consisted mostly of white jurors, found the defendants not guilty on all but one charge. Ultimately, however, the remaining charge resulted in a hung jury and an acquittal, so no guilty verdicts were issued for any of the officers. At around 3 pm on 29 April 1992, the four officers were found not guilty.

Riots broke out almost immediately

Less than 3 hours later, riots protesting the officers’ acquittal erupted at the intersection of Florence Boulevard and Normandie Avenue. By 9 pm, the mayor had declared a state of emergency, and the governor deployed 2,000 National Guard troops into the city. The uprising lasted 5 days and tore apart the city.

A building burned to the ground during the riots.

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons

The riots were particularly intense in South Central Los Angeles, as residents were already experiencing high unemployment rates, drug issues, gang violence and other violent crimes in a neighbourhood that was over 50% black.

Moreover, in the same month that King had been beaten, a 15-year-old black girl, Latasha Harlins, had been shot and killed by a store owner who accused her of stealing orange juice. It was later discovered that she was clutching money to pay for the juice when she was murdered. The Asian storeowner received probation and a $500 fine.

The lack of justice in these two instances increased black residents’ disenfranchisement and frustration with the criminal justice system. Rioters caused fires, looted and destroyed buildings and even pulled motorists out of their cars and beat them. 

The police were slow to act

According to witnesses watching the first night of the riots, police officers drove by scenes of violence without stopping or attempting to protect those being attacked, including white drivers.

When 911 calls started being logged, officers were not sent out straight away. In fact, they did not respond to calls for about 3 hours after the first incidences occurred, including a man being hit with a brick after being forcibly removed from his vehicle. Further, it was later revealed that the city had not anticipated such reactions to the verdict and had not prepared for potential unrest in any capacity, let alone on this scale. 

More than 50 people died during the LA riots

A curfew was put in place from sunset to sunrise, mail delivery ceased for the duration of the riots, and most residents were unable to go to work or school for 5 days. Traffic was stopped and approximately 2,000 Korean-run businesses were defaced or ruined because of pre-existing racial tensions in the city. In all, it is estimated that there was over $1 billion worth of damages caused in 5 days.

On the third day of the riots, King himself appealed to the people of LA to stop rioting with the famed line, “I just want to say, can’t we all get along?” In total, over 50 riot-related deaths occurred, with some estimates placing the figure as high as 64. Over 2,000 people were injured and approximately 6,000 accused looters and arsonists were arrested. On 4 May, the riots ended and businesses reopened.

Rodney King poses for a portrait after a book signing of his book ‘The Riot Within: My Journey from Rebellion to Redemption’ in New York, 24 April 2012.

Image Credit: REUTERS / Alamy Stock Photo

Ultimately, Rodney King was awarded a financial settlement at a civil trial in 1994. He died in 2012 at the age of 47. In 1993, two of the four officers who beat King were found guilty of violating King’s civil rights and served 30 months in prison. The other two officers were fired from the LAPD. Owing to his lack of leadership, the police chief was forced to resign in June 1992. 

Outside of performing, Wilson put her career on the line to fight for civil rights, marching alongside thousands of others in the Selma March of 1965, and working closely with many groups to help black communities. She is now remembered as both a legend within musical and activist circles.

Here are 10 facts about Nancy Wilson.

1. She won a TV talent show at 15

Born in 1937 in Chillicothe, Ohio, Nancy Wilson began singing aged 4. She grew up listening to her father’s records and singing in the church choir. Wilson was influenced by Dinah Washington, Nat King Cole and Ruth Brown. When she was 15, she entered and won a local TV talent show. She was awarded regular appearances on a show called Skyline Melodies.

Wilson finished her high school education and attended college for one year. She dropped out to travel with a jazz band before moving to New York City to pursue a solo singing career.

2. She had three goals when she moved to New York City

Upon her arrival in NYC in 1960, Wilson landed a regular gig at the Blue Morocco club in the Bronx. She had three main aims. First, she wanted to work with John Levy, an influential jazz manager. Secondly, Wilson wanted to sign with Capitol Records, the label who represented her idol Nat King Cole. Lastly, she wanted to record her first album with producer David Cavanaugh.

Within 5 months, Wilson accomplished all three goals. She was 23 at the time.

3. Her career spanned five decades

Wilson released more than 70 albums across her 50-year career. Despite having no formal training, she was able to work across genres, and sometimes released 3 albums a year. She was second only to The Beatles in sales in the 1960s, and has outsold big names like Frank Sinatra, Peggy Lee and the Beach Boys.

Furthermore, Wilson had 8 top 20 albums on the Billboard 200 chart in the 60s alone. Some of her hit singles included Save Your Love for Me, Tell Me the Truth and (You Don’t Know) How Glad I Am.

Nancy Wilson at the Grand Gala du Disque, 1968.

Image Credit: Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons

4. She won 3 Grammys

Wilson was awarded 3 Grammys. She won her first Grammy in 1964 for Best R&B Recording for the album How Glad I Am. Additionally, she received two Best Jazz Vocal Album awards for RSVP – Rare Songs, Very Personal in 2005 and Turned to Blue in 2007. In addition to her Grammy awards, she was honoured as a Jazz Master by the National Endowment of the Arts in 2004.

5. She considered herself a ‘song stylist’

Though Wilson is remembered most as a jazz singer, she did not limit herself to one genre. In fact, she referred to herself as a ‘song stylist’, and, for her, songs were about storytelling. In 1993, she told the Los Angeles Times: ‘I have a gift for telling stories, making them seem larger than life.’

Wilson’s storytelling extended to how she performed. She preferred intimate nightclub performances so that people could see and hear her more clearly. As she sang, she wanted people to experience her music through her body language in addition to her vocals.

6. Her music was empowering for women

Interestingly, Wilson’s choice to sing about heartbreak and her style of emotive singing has led to the NY Times calling her a forerunner of the modern ‘female empowerment singer’. In songs like Face It Girl, one of her biggest commercial successes, she was playful with her interpretation of heartbreak and sang with attitude and flair about a former flame.

7. She had her own television show

Wilson added actress to her resume, appearing for the next few decades on programmes such as The Carol Burnett Show and The Cosby Show. She also hosted her own TV show, The Nancy Wilson Show, for which she won an Emmy. Later in her career, she hosted NPR’s Jazz Profile series.

Publicity photo of Danny Kaye and Nancy Wilson, 1965.

Image Credit: Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons

8. She participated in the Selma to Montgomery March in 1965

On 7 March 1965, approximately 3,200 people left Selma, Alabama for the state capital, Montgomery, led by Martin Luther King Jr. They were protesting the murder of Jimmie Lee Jackson and obstructions to voting rights for African Americans. By the time they reached Montgomery, their numbers had reached 25,000.

Among the crowd was Nancy Wilson, who knew taking a political stand in this way could lead to professional consequences. Nonetheless, she believed ‘it had to be done.’ Her commitment to improving civil rights for black Americans continued throughout the rest of her life.

9. She worked with organisations to help black communities in several cities

Wilson’s philanthropic efforts continued long into her career, and she worked with organisations such as the Manchester Craftsmen’s Guild and the Brotherhood Crusade to empower disenfranchised communities to seek justice and improve living conditions. Further, she worked to improve women’s medical care, especially during childbirth, and campaigned for AIDS awareness.

10. She was honoured for her activism

Wilson was honoured for her activism in many ways, including through an award from the Martin Luther King Jr. Center for Nonviolent Social Change in 1993. In 1998, she received the NAACP Image Award for her philanthropic contributions and lifelong activism.

She was also inducted into the International Civil Rights Hall of Fame in 2005. She was dedicated to black communities at a time when it was incredibly risky for her career, especially as a woman in entertainment, yet she was able to have a prolific and varied career. When she died in 2018, she left behind a brilliant legacy.

Throughout her life, she worked tirelessly in the United States and abroad to expose the realities of lynching events in the US. Historically, her work was overlooked, with her name only recently becoming more celebrated. Wells also created and led many organisations fighting for racial and gender equality.

Ida B. Wells became a caretaker for her siblings after her parents died

When Wells was 16, her parents and youngest sibling died during a yellow fever epidemic in her hometown of Holly Springs, Mississippi. Wells had been studying at Shaw University – now Rust College – at the time but returned home to take care of her remaining siblings. Though she was only 16, she convinced a school administrator she was 18 and was able to find work as a teacher. She later moved her family to Memphis, Tennessee and continued working as a teacher.

In 1884, Wells won a lawsuit against a train car company for forcibly removing her

Wells sued a train car company in 1884 for throwing her off a first-class train despite having a ticket. She had travelled this way previously, and it was a violation of her rights to be asked to move. As she was forcibly removed from the train car, she bit a crew member. Wells won her case on a local level and was awarded $500 as a result. However, the case was later overturned in federal court.

Ida B. Wells c. 1893 by Mary Garrity.

Wells lost a friend to lynching in 1892

By 25, Wells co-owned and edited the Free Speech and Headlight newspaper in Memphis, writing under the name Iola. She began writing about racial inequality after one of her friends and his two business associates – Tom Moss, Calvin McDowell, and Will Stewart – were lynched on 9 March 1892 after being attacked by their white competitors one night.

The black men fought back to protect their shop, firing at and injuring several white men in the process. They were arrested for their actions, but before they could stand trial, a white mob broke into the jail, dragged them out and lynched them.

Wells subsequently investigated lynching events across the south

In the aftermath, Wells realised the stories printed in newspapers did not often depict the realities of what had occurred. She bought a pistol and set off across the south to sites where lynching events had occurred.

In her travels, she researched 700 lynching events from the past decade, visiting the places where the lynching happened, examining photos and newspaper accounts, and interviewing witnesses. Her investigations disputed the narratives that lynching victims were ruthless criminals who deserved their punishment.

She uncovered that, though rape was a commonly reported excuse for lynching, it was only alleged in a third of the events, usually after a consensual, interracial relationship had been revealed. She exposed the events for what they truly were: targeted, racist retaliations to instill fear in the black community.

She was forced to flee the south for her reporting

Wells’ articles enraged white locals in Memphis, especially after she suggested that white women could be romantically interested in black men. As she published her writing in her own newspaper, an angry mob destroyed her shop and threatened to kill her if she returned to Memphis. She was not in town when her press shop was destroyed, likely saving her life. She remained in the north, working on an in-depth report on lynching for The New York Age and settling permanently in Chicago, Illinois.

She continued her investigative and activist work in Chicago

Wells continued her work in earnest in Chicago, publishing A Red Record in 1895, which detailed her investigations into lynching in America. This was the first statistical record of lynching events, showcasing how widespread the problem was across the United States. Additionally, in 1895 she married lawyer Ferdinand Barnett, hyphenating her name with his, rather than taking his name as was custom at the time.

She fought for racial equality and women’s suffrage

Her activist work did not end with anti-lynching campaigns. She called for a boycott of the 1893 World’s Columbian Exposition for locking out African Americans. She criticized white women’s suffrage efforts for ignoring lynching and racial inequality, establishing her own suffrage groups, the National Association of Colored Women’s Club and Chicago’s Alpha Suffrage Club.

As president of the Alpha Suffrage Club in Chicago, she was invited to join the 1913 Suffrage Parade in Washington, DC. Having been asked to march at the back of the parade with other black suffragists, she was dissatisfied with and ignored the request, standing at the edge of the parade, waiting for the Chicago section of white protestors to pass, where she promptly joined them. On 25 June 1913, the passage of the Illinois Equal Suffrage Act came in large part due to the efforts of the women’s suffrage club.

Ida B. Wells in c. 1922.

Image Credit: Internet Archive Book Images via Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain

Wells established many activist organisations

In addition to her women’s suffrage organisations, Wells was a tireless advocate for anti-lynching legislation and racial equality. She was at the meeting in Niagara Falls when the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) was established, but her name is left off the founder’s list.

However, she was not impressed by the elitism of the group’s leadership and was disappointed by the lack of action-based initiatives. She was seen as too radical, so she distanced herself from the organisation. In 1910, she founded the Negro Fellowship League to assist migrants arriving from the south to Chicago, and she was secretary for the National Afro-American Council from 1898-1902. Wells led an anti-lynching protest in DC in 1898, calling on President McKinley to pass anti-lynching legislation. Her activism and her exposés on lynching in America cement her role in history as a tireless champion of racial equality in the Jim Crow era.

During his life, he was a popular and respected physician, even if some of his theories have been disproven today. While he remains most widely recognised for his cereal legacy, he also ran one of the most famous medical spas in America, promoted vegetarianism and celibacy, and advocated for eugenics.

John Harvey Kellogg was a member of the Seventh-day Adventist church

Ellen White formed the Seventh-day Adventist Church in Battle Creek, Michigan in 1854 after apparently receiving visions and messages from God. This religion connected spiritual and physical health and required followers to adhere to strict guidelines for hygiene, diet and chastity. Members of this congregation were to have a vegetarian diet and were discouraged from consuming tobacco, coffee, tea and alcohol.

Moreover, overeating, wearing corsets and other ‘evils’ were believed to lead to unholy acts like masturbation and excessive sexual intercourse. John Harvey Kellogg’s family moved to Battle Creek in 1856 to be active members of the congregation, and this certainly impacted his worldview.

White saw Kellogg’s enthusiasm in the church and pressed him to be an important member, providing him with an apprenticeship in their publishing company’s print shop and sponsoring his education through medical school.

In 1876, Kellogg began managing the Battle Creek Sanitarium

After receiving his medical degree, Kellogg returned to Michigan and was asked by the White family to run what came to be known as the Battle Creek Sanitarium. This site became America’s most popular medical spa, growing from a health reform institute to a medical centre, spa and hotel.

This launched Kellogg into the public eye, making him a celebrity doctor who worked with several US presidents, and prominent figures such as Thomas Edison and Henry Ford.

Battle Creek Medical Surgical Sanitarium before 1902

Image Credit: Public Domain

Treatment options at this site were experimental for the time and many are no longer in practice. They included 46 different kinds of baths, like the continuous bath where a patient would remain in a bath for hours, days or even weeks to cure skin diseases, hysteria and mania.

He also gave patients enemas, using up to 15 quarts of water to cleanse colons, as opposed to the usual pint or two of liquid. He even opened his own health food company with his brother, W.K., to service the centre and provide patients with healthy foods, including corn flakes. At its peak, the site saw approximately 12-15,000 new patients each year.

Kellogg’s idea of ‘biological living’ targeted common ailments like indigestion

Kellogg believed himself to be fighting for improved wellness in America, advocating for what he referred to as ‘biological’ or ‘biologic’ living. Influenced by his upbringing, he promoted sexual abstinence, encouraged through a bland diet, as part of his programme.

As Kellogg was a passionate vegetarian, he encouraged a whole grain and plant-based diet to cure the most common ailment of the day, indigestion – or dyspepsia, as it was known at the time. He believed that most ailments could be treated through proper nutrition. For him, this meant whole grains and no meat. His dietary preferences mirror today’s paleo diet.

Kellogg created corn flakes to discourage masturbation

Kellogg firmly believed that masturbation caused many ailments, including memory loss, poor digestion, and even insanity. One of the methods Kellogg suggested for deterring this act was to eat a bland diet. Supposedly, eating bland foods would not incite passions, whereas spicy or well-seasoned foods would cause a reaction in people’s sexual organs that incited them to masturbate.

Kellogg believed that artificial foods were to blame for America’s indigestion problems. Only through increased exercise, more bathing, and a bland, vegetarian diet could people be healthy. Thus, the corn flake cereal was born in the 1890s to ease digestion issues, simplify breakfast and stop masturbation.

An advertisement for Kellogg’s Toasted Corn Flakes from 23 August 1919.

Image Credit: CC / The Oregonian

Though most nutritionists today would disagree that Kellogg’s corn flakes actually hold such nutritional and digestive benefits (not to mention the behavioural effects), the cereal was bought in as large a quantity as his food company could handle.

In addition to a bland diet, Kellogg was determined to deter masturbation using inhumane and harmful methods. In the event that someone could not stop masturbating, he would recommend circumcision without anaesthetic for boys or the application of carbolic acid to the clitoris for girls.

W.K. Kellogg brought breakfast cereal to the masses

Ultimately, John Harvey Kellogg cared more about his mission than profits. But his brother, W.K., was able to successfully scale the cereal into the company we know it as today, breaking away from his brother who he saw as stifling the company’s potential.

W.K. was successful in marketing the product because he added sugar, something his brother despised. Sweetening the corn flakes corrupted the product, according to John Harvey’s doctrine. However, by the 1940s, all cereals were pre-coated with sugar.

This product met the need for a quick, easy breakfast, which was a problem Americans faced since the Industrial Revolution, as they now worked outside of the home in factories and had less time for meals. W.K. was also incredibly successful in advertising the cereal, creating some of the first cartoon mascots to help brand the company.

Kellogg believed in eugenics and racial hygiene

In addition to Kellogg’s inhumane practices to deter masturbation, he was also a vocal eugenicist who founded the Race Betterment Foundation. This was intended to encourage people of ‘good pedigrees’ to maintain heritage by procreating exclusively with those who met his standards of racial hygiene.

His name and legacy live on through a popular cereal brand, but John Harvey Kellogg’s 91 years were marked by a quest for wellness which was prejudiced against those who did not meet his criteria for excellence.

Born in to slavery, Carver was the first African American to receive a bachelor’s degree in the United States, and he spent much of his life working at Tuskegee Institute (now Tuskegee University). Though many of his experiments did not yield products used today, his theories on crop rotation and other practical farming methods improved soil conditions in the South.

Here are 10 facts about George Washington Carver.

1. George Washington Carver was born into slavery in Missouri

Though his exact birthdate is unknown, it is believed Carver was born in the early 1860s, potentially in 1864. He was enslaved from birth by Moses Carver in Diamond, Missouri. During the war, Carver and his family were kidnapped by slave raiders, and when the infant Carver was found, he was alone. Moses Carver raised the boy until he left the farm to pursue education, eventually earning a high school diploma.

2. Carver was the first African American to earn a bachelor’s degree

Upon completing high school, Carver obtained a bachelor’s degree in agriculture from what is now Iowa State University in 1894. There, he gained a reputation as an excellent botanist and became the first African American to earn a bachelor’s degree in the United States.

In 1896, he received a master of science in agriculture as well. After graduation, he was offered a teaching position at the Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute in Alabama.

3. Carver remained at Tuskegee Institute for the remainder of his life

When Carver finished his master’s programme, he had many avenues for employment but accepted an offer at Tuskegee Institute, Booker T. Washington’s new vocational school for African Americans. Washington provided him with two rooms – one for his plants – and a higher salary than other employees, but the investment was worthwhile, as Carver remained at Tuskegee for the rest of his life.

Carver was not much interested in teaching and preferred to be researching, though he was admired by his students. It was at Tuskegee that Carver was able to experiment with the farming methods for which he would become known.

Botanist George Washington Carver photographed in 1910.

Image Credit: Tuskegee University Archives, LOC via Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain

4. Carver’s encouragement of crop rotation improved soil conditions

When he moved to Alabama, Carver was shocked by the ways in which growing cotton had depleted the landscape. After the war, many African Americans in the south were granted portions of white landowner’s farms and were allowed to work the land in exchange for a cut of the crop. As tenant farmers, one bad crop year could thrust them into serious debt. Because of this, Carver pivoted his focus and began encouraging self-sustaining farming practices, primarily crop rotation, to protect the soil.

By focusing on growing a single crop – cotton – for so many years, the soil had been left depleted of nutrients. Carver recommended growing peanuts, sweet potatoes and soybeans in these nitrogen-depleted fields, as they grew in different seasons and produced their own nitrogen that would replenish the soil.

5. He created a commercial need for peanuts and sweet potatoes

Once Carver convinced farmers to employ crop rotation methods, there came to be a surplus of peanuts and sweet potatoes, which at the time were not staples of the American diet. To resolve the issue and increase demand, Carver detailed an estimated 300 ways to use peanuts to showcase its variability. Some uses for peanuts included milk, oil, cosmetics and antiseptics.

Carver’s goal was not to create the best products, and many of his suggested uses for peanuts were not wholly original; his purpose was to provide information and recipes to poor farmers that required little resources but would improve their living conditions. His uses for peanuts especially took off.

6. Carver convinced Congress to impose a tariff on foreign peanuts

In an effort to protect African American farmers as they grew peanuts, Carver travelled to Washington DC to lobby Congress. There, he convinced them to pass a tariff on foreign peanuts, meaning farmers would be protected growing this new crop. He was then dubbed the ‘Peanut Man’, and his success in Washington launched him to celebrity status. He even met with Mahatma Gandhi to discuss nutrition in developing nations.

7. Carver did not invent peanut butter

It is often stated that George Washington Carver invented peanut butter, but that is false. By the time Carver published his practical bulletin How to Grow the Peanut and 105 Ways of Preparing it for Human Consumption in 1916, early versions of peanut butter had already been developed. Other notable figures credited with the invention of peanut butter include Marcellus Gilmore Edson and John Harvey Kellogg, though variations of grinding peanuts into paste date back to Aztec and Inca civilizations.

A depiction of George Washington Carver on an Alabama banknote. Applied Currency Concepts.

Image Credit: Prachaya Roekdeethaweesab / Shutterstock.com

8. Carver brought his teachings on the road through the Jessup Wagon

As he developed his farming methods, Carver realized he needed to meet farmers in the field. With funding from a Tuskegee donor, he brought a mobile classroom, the Jessup Wagon, on the road to reach more farmers about soil chemistry. In the first summer of operations in 1906, he reached 2,000 people a month. Further, he distributed bulletins freely to farmers that detailed his findings and other practical information, including recipes.

9. Carver was an early promoter of sustainability

Though he remains most known for his work with peanuts, this was not the effort he was most proud of. Carver was motivated to find new ways to work the land so that African American farmers could have a better quality of life. He was focused on how the health of the land impacted the health of people. He believed humans are interconnected with land, and so his methods for sustainable farming – like crop rotation – were developed to improve people’s connection to the land while simultaneously improving the quality of the earth.

10. Carver preferred to let his work speak for itself

Carver largely stayed out of politics and rarely corrected the myths and exaggerations published about him because he was not concerned with celebrity. His reluctance to speak on racial equality sometimes earned him criticism from those advocating for more radical change. However, he was dedicated to improving the quality of life for farming families – many of whom were African American.

After Carver’s death, Franklin D. Roosevelt signed legislation to erect a monument in his honour, the first granted to an African American. The legacy of the ‘Peanut Man’ lives on through his sustainability and farming methods today.