In this episode of the podcast series The Ancients, Dr.Chris Naunton joins Tristan Hughes to put forward several theories about the ongoing mystery of the whereabouts of Cleopatra’s lost burial place. 

Cleopatra is one of Ancient Egypt’s most famous figures. Pharaoh in her own right, she ruled Ptolemaic Egypt for 21 years until her death by suicide in 30BC, when Egypt came under the control of Rome. One of the mysteries that plagues ancient historians and archaeologists is the location of Cleopatra’s tomb, which it’s believed will help provide a valuable window into Cleopatra’s life and death.

There are tiny clues which hint at the tomb’s location: accounts of the period say that Cleopatra was building a monument for herself and her lover Mark Antony rather than being buried in the mausoleum which housed many of the Ptolemies. As ruler of Egypt, a building project like this would have been vast and the tomb itself would have been lavishly appointed.

Some accounts of Cleopatra’s life suggest that the building was completed by 30BC – and in fact, having been chased to Alexandria by Octavian, she effectively took refuge in her mausoleum for a time in fear for her life. In this particular version, the mausoleum is described as having multiple floors, with windows or doors in an upper level which allowed Cleopatra to communicate with those on the ground outside.

Where in Alexandria might it have been?

Alexandria was hit by an earthquake in the 4th century AD: much of the ancient city was partially destroyed and submerged as the sea bed dropped several metres. It’s quite likely that Cleopatra’s tomb was in this part of the city, but extensive underwater archaeological research hasn’t provided any hard evidence – yet.

Cleopatra had closely associated herself with the goddess Isis in her lifetime and one history suggests that her mausoleum was located close to one of Alexandria’s Temples of Isis.

Was she actually buried in her mausoleum?

Some historians have hypothesised that Cleopatra wasn’t buried in Alexandria at all. She committed suicide, probably partly in an attempt to avoid be captured and paraded humiliatingly through the streets of Rome by Octavian.

Even having avoided humiliation in life though, many believe it was unlikely Octavian would have permitted her the burial she wanted. One theory is that Cleopatra’s handmaidens smuggled her body out of the city to Taposiris Magna, a few kilometres west by the coast.

Another theory is that she is buried in an unmarked, rock cut grave in a Macedonian-Egyptian cemetery. However, the general consensus believes Alexandria is still the most likely site: and the quest to find her tomb remains.

Learn more about the theories of Cleopatra’s burial place and the ongoing attempts to find them in The Lost Tomb of Cleopatra on The Ancients by History Hit.

Here are 10 facts about Cleopatra, the legendary Queen of the Nile.

1. She was the last ruler of the Ptolemaic dynasty

Although she was born in Egypt, Cleopatra was not Egyptian. Her origins trace back to the Ptolemaic dynasty, a Macedonian Greek royal family.

She was a descendant of Ptolemy I ‘Soter’, a general and friend of Alexander the Great. The Ptolemies were the last dynasty to rule Egypt, from 305 to 30 BC.

After her father Ptolemy XII’s death in 51 BC, Cleopatra became co-regent of Egypt alongside her brother Ptolemy XIII.

Bust of Cleopatra VII – Altes Museum – Berlin

Image Credit: © José Luiz Bernardes Ribeiro

2. She was highly intelligent and well educated

Medieval Arab texts praise Cleopatra for her accomplishments as a mathematician, chemist and philosopher. She was said to have written scientific books and, in the words of the historian Al-Masudi:

She was a sage, a philosopher, who elevated the ranks of scholars and enjoyed their company.

She was also multilingual – historical accounts report her speaking between 5 and 9 languages, including her native Greek, Egyptian, Arabic and Hebrew.

3. Cleopatra married two of her brothers

Cleopatra was married to her brother and co-ruler Ptolemy XIII, who was 10 years old at the time (she was 18). In 48 BC, Ptolemy tried to depose his sister, forcing her to flee to Syria and Egypt.

Upon Ptolemy XIII’s death after being defeated by her Roman-Egyptian armies, Cleopatra married his younger brother Ptolemy XIV. She was 22; he was 12. During their marriage Cleopatra continued to live with Caesar privately and act as his mistress.

She married Mark Antony in 32 BC. Following Antony’s surrender and suicide after being defeated by Octavian, Cleopatra was captured by his army.

The legend goes that Cleopatra had an asp smuggled into her room and allowed it to bite her, poisoning and killing her.

4. Her beauty was the product of Roman propaganda

Contrary to modern portrayals from Elizabeth Taylor and Vivien Leigh, there is no evidence among ancient historians that Cleopatra was a great beauty.

Contemporary visual sources show Cleopatra with a large pointed nose, narrow lips and sharp, jutting chin.

According to Plutarch:

Her actual beauty…was not so remarkable that none could be compared with her.

Her reputation as a dangerous and seductive temptress was in fact the creation of her enemy Octavian. Roman historians portrayed her as a harlot who used sex to bewitch powerful men into giving her power.

5. She used her image as a political tool

Cleopatra believed herself to be a living goddess and was keenly aware of the relationship between image and power. Historian John Fletcher described her as “a mistress of disguise and costume.”

She would appear dressed as the goddess Isis at ceremonial events, and surrounded herself with luxury.

6. She was a popular pharaoh

Contemporary Egyptian sources suggest that Cleopatra was loved among her people.

Unlike her Ptolemaic forebears – who spoke Greek and observed Greek customs – Cleopatra identified as a truly Egyptian pharaoh.

She learned the Egyptian language and commissioned portraits of herself in the traditional Egyptian style.

Profile view of the Berlin Cleopatra (left); The Chiaramonti Caesar bust, a posthumous portrait in marble, 44–30 BC (right)

Image Credit: © José Luiz Bernardes Ribeiro (left); Unknown author, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons (right)

7. She was a strong and successful leader

Under her rule, Egypt was the richest nation in the Mediterranean and the last to remain independent from the rapidly expanding Roman Empire.

Cleopatra built up the Egyptian economy, and used trade with Arab nations to bolster her country’s status as a world power.

8. Her lovers were also her political allies

Cleopatra’s relationships with Julius Caesar and Mark Antony were as much military alliances as romantic liaisons.

At the time of her meeting with Caesar, Cleopatra was in exile – cast out by her brother. Caesar was to arbitrate a peace conference between the warring siblings.

Cleopatra persuaded her servant to wrap her in a carpet and present her to the Roman general. In her best finery, she begged Caesar for his help to regain the throne.

By all accounts she and Mark Antony were truly in love. But by allying herself with Octavian’s rival, she helped defend Egypt from becoming a vassal of Rome.

9. She was in Rome when Caesar was killed

Cleopatra was living in Rome as Caesar’s mistress at the time of his violent death in 44 BC. His assassination put her own life in danger, and she fled with their young son across the river Tiber.

A Roman painting in the House of Marcus Fabius Rufus at Pompeii, Italy, depicting Cleopatra as Venus Genetrix and her son Caesarion as a cupid

Image Credit: Ancient Roman painter(s) from Pompeii, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Upon her return to Egypt, Cleopatra immediately took steps to consolidate her rule. She had her brother Ptolemy XIV poisoned with aconite and replaced him with her son, Ptolemy XV ‘Caesarion’.

10. She had four children

Cleopatra had one son with Julius Caesar, who she named Caesarion – ‘little Caesar’. After her suicide, Caesarion was killed under orders by the Roman emperor Augustus.

Cleopatra had three children with Mark Antony: Ptolemy ‘Philadelphus’ and twins Cleopatra ‘Selene’ and Alexander ‘Helios’.

None of her descendants lived to inherit Egypt.

Here are 5 important female rulers throughout the history of ancient Egypt.

1. Merneith (c. 3200-2900 BC)

Historical records show that Merneith was a queen consort and regent – the wife of Djet and mother of Den, the pharaoh. However it is believed that she may have also been a ruler in her own right.

Her tomb bears a striking resemblance to those of Egyptian pharaohs from the First Dynasty and contains artefacts usually reserved for kings – a large underground chamber, graves for servants, and sacrificial offerings.

Her name was also included in a list of early pharaohs on a seal in Den’s tomb, which has led historians to believe that she was a pharaoh. If true, then Merneith would be the first female pharaoh and queen regnant in recorded history.

2. Sobekneferu (r. 1806–1802 BC)

Sobekneferu was the first female pharaoh of ancient Egypt confirmed by evidence. She was the last ruler of the 12th Dynasty, following the death of her brother Amenemhat IV. She was the first monarch named after the crocodile god Sobek, symbol of pharaonic might.

Archaeologists have found images that refer to her as Female Horus, King of Upper and Lower Egypt, and Daughter of Re.

Sobekneferu ruled only briefly – three years and 10 months – and at a time of civil unrest and then a period of anarchy. During her reign, she built temples at the northern sites Tell Dab’a and Herakleopolis, and also completed her father’s pyramid complex at Hawara.

She is said to have created her own pyramid at Mazghuna near Dahshur, but no trace of her burial has been found. Sobekneferu’s innovations inspired the next female pharaoh, Hatshepsut, who went on to adopt the same kingly regalia and false beard.

3. Hatshepsut (r. 1578-1478 BC)

Statue of Hatshepsut. Image credit: Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Image Credit: Metropolitan Museum of Art, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons

The second historically confirmed female pharaoh, Hatshepsut became queen of Egypt at the age of 12 upon marrying her half-brother Thutmose II. She then became regent to her infant stepson Thutmose III, following the death of her husband. Less than 7 years into her regency, Hatshepsut assumed the full powers and title of a pharaoh.

To consolidate her power, Hatshepsut ordered all official representations of her to include all the traditional regalia and symbols of the pharaoh – the Khat head cloth topped with the uraeus, the false beard and shendyt kilt.

Hatshepsut – whose name means “foremost of noblewomen” – has generally been regarded as one of the most successful pharaohs in Egyptian history. During her reign, she established ambitious building projects, including the construction of a great temple at Deir el-Bahari at Luxor. She also oversaw the significant expansion of trade, launching a sea voyage to the northeast coast of Africa.

4. Nefertiti (1370-1330 BC)

Alongside her husband Akhenaten IV, Nefertiti ruled Egypt from 1353 to 1336 BC. The power couple of the ancient world are best remembered for starting a monotheistic religious revolution. Prior to their reign, Egyptian religion was polytheistic. Nefertiti and Akhenaten pushed for the worship of only one god – the sun disk called Aten.

Under their joint rule, ancient Egypt became more prosperous than it had ever been. Nefertiti ruled Egypt after the death of her husband, however she vanished from historical records within a few years of assuming the throne.

Some scholars believe she ruled Egypt briefly as pharaoh under the name Neferneferuaten, before the ascension of Tutankhamun.

5. Cleopatra VII (r. 51-12 BC)

Marble bust of Cleopatra VII of Egypt from ca. 40-30 BC. Image credit: Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Image Credit: Louis le Grand, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

The daughter of Ptolemy XII, Cleopatra was the last active pharaoh in Ptolemaic Egypt, ruling as co-regent first with her brothers Ptolemy XIII and then Ptolemy XIV. Cleopatra was forced to flee when Ptolemy XIII ousted her from power. Determined to regain the throne, she raised an army of mercenaries and sought the backing of Roman leader Julius Caesar.

With Rome’s military might, she defeated her brother’s forces, gained control of Egypt, and bore Julius Caesar a son. After his death, she became involved with his successor, Marc Anthony. Of Macedonian origin, Cleopatra was fluent in a multitude of languages including Aramaic, Egyptian, Ethiopic, Greek, Hebrew and Latin.

In her fascinating book, Cleopatra’s Daughter: Egyptian Princess, Roman Prisoner, African Queen, historian Jane Draycott explores the life of Cleopatra Selene and how her life shines revelatory light on Roman politics, society and culture in the early years of the Empire, on Roman perceptions of Egypt, and on the relationship between Rome and one of its most significant allied kingdoms.

Here we explore more about how this remarkable woman became an influential ruler.

Antony and Cleopatra’s mutual desires

Following the Battle of Philippi in northern Greece in 42 BC, the victors – Mark Antony and Gaius Octavius (Julius Caesar’s great nephew and heir, the future Roman Emperor Caesar Augustus) – divided the Roman world between them; Antony received the East, Octavian the West.

Antony’s priority was the invasion and subjugation of Rome’s old enemy, Parthia. This required a base of operations in the East as well as funds, supplies and equipment. Queen Cleopatra VII of Egypt was the ruler of Rome’s wealthiest client kingdom, a highly fertile agricultural region which also contained mineral resources mined for gold, precious stones and coloured marble. The region’s city, Alexandria, was also a major Mediterranean trading centre, and her kingdom also had a monopoly on trade with India and the Far East.

In 41 BC, Antony summoned Cleopatra to meet him at Tarsus in Asia Minor. While the two had met on several previous occasions, this time Cleopatra deliberately set out to make a favourable impression. With Caesar dead, she and her son needed a powerful new Roman protector. Thus, displaying her wealth prominently, Cleopatra set out to woo Antony.

Most likely a posthumously painted portrait of Cleopatra with red hair and her distinct facial features, wearing a royal diadem and pearl-studded hairpins, from Roman Herculaneum, Italy, 1st century AD

Image Credit: Ángel M. Felicísimo from Mérida, España, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Egyptian Princess

Antony and Cleopatra’s legendary love affair led to them having fraternal twins, Cleopatra Selene and Alexander Helios, and later another boy, Ptolemy Philadelphos. Thus for the first decade of her life, Cleopatra Selene was raised in Egypt as an Egyptian princess.

Recognising Octavian intended to destroy him, Mark Antony found refuge in Egypt. Shortly after his return to Alexandria in 34 BC, Antony held a lavish ceremony, ‘the Donations of Alexandria’, where he bestowed vast swathes of land onto Cleopatra, declaring her to be Queen of Kings and Caesarion to be King of Egypt. He also bestowed kingdoms upon their joint children. Cleopatra Selene was given Crete and the Cyrenaica. Antony therefore ensured that Egypt gradually regained the territories it had ruled at its peak during the reign of Ptolemy II Philadelphos.

Rome’s new leader, Octavian, was angered by this, accusing Antony of betraying Roman culture and becoming an Egyptian. Octavian was further outraged after discovering a copy of Antony’s will revealing his wish to be buried in Alexandria with Cleopatra rather than in Rome with his wife Octavia. These factors led to the Battle of Actium. Despite a brief return to Alexandria, defeat was inevitable for both Antony and Cleopatra, who famously then took their own lives rather than surrender to Octavian.

Meanwhile Cleopatra Selene and her brothers had been sent to Thebes in the south of Egypt by Cleopatra for their safety. After the deaths of their parents, Cleopatra Selene and Alexander Helios were nominally in charge of Egypt, yet a fortnight later their kingdom was annexed by the Roman Empire and they were brought back to Alexandria by Octavian. Octavian then left the newly created province, taking the twins and Ptolemy Philadelphos back to Rome with him where he paraded them as war trophies at a triumph, covering them both in heavy gold chains to indicate their subservience to him.

Roman Prisoner

In the absence of any surviving relatives, responsibility for Cleopatra Selene passed to Octavian. Some sources say Octavian planned to kill the children, but his sister Octavia intervened in their favour, raising them as her own in her house on the Palatine Hill in Rome along with their extended family of a half-brother, two half-sisters and Octavia’s older children from a previous marriage. Octavian and his wife Livia Drusilla, lived nearby with Augustus’ daughter and Livia’s sons.

Gaius Julius Juba

Augustus had accumulated a collection of royal children – some were the heirs of friendly client rulers sent to Rome to ‘Romanise’ them, some the children of former client rulers who had been deposed or died. One of these was Gaius Julius Juba, the son of King Juba of Numidia (modern-day Algeria, Tunisia and Libya), who had taken his own life after his defeat at the Battle of Thapsus by Caesar in 46 BC.

Portrait of Juba II, king of Mauretania (25 BC–23 CE)

Image Credit: Louvre Museum, CC BY 2.5 , via Wikimedia Commons

Only a baby, Gaius Julius Juba had been taken back to Rome by Caesar and raised in his household. After Caesar’s assassination in 44 BC, custody passed to Octavian (and subsequently Octavia). Juba was awarded Roman citizenship, was well-educated and adopted Roman practices. Juba served alongside Octavian in his conquest of Egypt, even participating in the Battle of Actium that had defeated Cleopatra Selene’s parents. Opting to make Numidia a client state rather than a province of Rome, Octavian (now known as Augustus) sent Juba to rule there as its king. 

African Queen

In 25 BC Cleopatra Selene and Gaius Julius Juba were married. Octavia had been instrumental in arranging their marriage noting the two had many similarities – they were both North African royals, both their parents had lost to Rome and had killed themselves, both had been left orphaned and had been taken to Rome, paraded on a triumph, and then been raised in the house of their parents’ enemies, and both had received Roman educations.

Augustus had changed his mind and re-annexed Numidia into Rome. By marrying Juba to Cleopatra Selene, Augustus was able to install them as his client rulers, proclaiming them king and queen of Mauretania. Cleopatra Selene and Gaius Julius Juba were finally free, accountable only to Augustus.

A likely depiction of Cleopatra Selene II wearing an elephant scalp, raised relief image on a gilded silver dish, from the Boscoreale Treasure

Image Credit: Jean-Pierre Dalbéra from Paris, France, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

While this was Juba’s first time as a king, Cleopatra Selene had previously been declared Queen of Crete and the Cyrenaica in 34 BC, and had technically reigned briefly as the Queen of Egypt in 30 BC. This prestige therefore enabled her to rule alongside her husband as a queen in her own right, with her Greek and Egyptian heritage evident on coins she issued in her own name as well as those in conjunction with her husband Juba.

Cleopatra Selene had inherited her mother’s intellect – she was interested in the arts, architecture, religion and medicine amongst other subjects, and is said to have exercised great influence on Juba’s policies.

The Mauretanian Kingdom

Their vast new kingdom encompassed modern-day Algeria and Morocco, and contained two capital cities and a few Greek and Roman colonies. Under their rule, the Mauretanian Kingdom modernised and flourished. They re-founded one of the capital cities as ‘Caesarea’ in honour to Augustus, and had many grand buildings built, inspired by those in Rome and Alexandria, including a royal palace, a lighthouse and numerous temples dedicated to Roman and Egyptian deities. Their court became a cosmopolitan fusion of Ancient Greek, Egyptian and Roman architectural styles and culture. 

Map of the Roman provinces of Mauretania Tingitana, Mauritania Cesariense and part of Numidia, in North Africa

Image Credit: Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Mauretania also became rich through trade. In addition to producing an expensive dye, Tyrian purple, that was much-coveted throughout the Roman Empire, they also exported wood, grapes, grains, pearls and fish (including a fish sauce, garum, popular in Rome).

Despite mild rebellions against the Romanisation of Mauretania, Cleopatra Selene and Juba wisely remained steadfast allies of Rome. Together they ruled Mauretania successfully for almost two decades, until Cleopatra Selene’s death aged 35.

Jane Draycott is a Roman historian and archaeologist with a special interest in Graeco-Roman Egypt. She has degrees in archaeology, ancient history and classics, has worked in academic institutions in the UK and Italy, and excavated sites ranging from Bronze Age villages to First World War trenches across Europe. Jane is currently Lecturer in Ancient History at the University of Glasgow. Her book, Cleopatra’s Daughter: Egyptian Princess, Roman Prisoner, African Queen is published by Head of Zeus publishing, published November 2022.

However, the precise circumstances of the death of the so-called Queen of the Nile have long been hotly debated. As one of the most famous women to have ever lived, Cleopatra’s death has been extensively depicted in works of art and writing throughout history, with sculptures such as Sleeping Ariadne immortalising the imagined final moments of her fascinating life.

So, how and why did Cleopatra die?

She suffered a severe military defeat

In 31 BC, Roman leader Octavian won a decisive naval victory against the forces of Roman Mark Antony and Queen of Egypt Cleopatra in an exchange known as the Battle of Actium. In a naval battle off the west coast of Greece, just before their forces suffered a final defeat, Antony and Cleopatra broke through enemy lines and fled to Alexandria in Egypt.

‘The Battle of Actium’ by Laureys a Castro, painted 1672

Image Credit: Lorenzo A. Castro, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Roman historian and senator Cassius Dio wrote that at home in Egypt, Cleopatra urgently tried to forestall any revolt and punish those who rejoiced at their defeat. Nonetheless, months later, Octavian’s Roman army had reached the city’s gates.

Octavian was concerned that Cleopatra and Antony might, as a desperate last offensive against him, hoard and destroy all of their vast wealth, which Cleopatra had been storing in her tomb and was threatening to burn if he didn’t listen to her attempts at bribery or bargaining. However, Octavian needed the wealth to pay his troops.

Octavian attempted to bargain with the couple, suggesting that they retreat to a quiet life. All attempts at negotiation were refused. On 1 August 30 BC, Antony confronted Octavian, but his fleet and cavalry surrendered without a fight.

Cleopatra told Antony she was dead

Cleopatra fled to her mausoleum that she had had built and sealed herself inside, accompanied by only her maidservants Iras and Charmion.

She had a message sent to Antony that she had died by suicide, possibly to prompt him to do the same, which would curry favour with Octavian. Antony is said to have asked a nearby servant to kill him with a sword; however, the servant killed himself instead. Antony then stabbed himself but didn’t immediately die.

Hearing that Cleopatra was actually still alive, he was hoisted through an upper-story window to her chamber and died there, with her, on 10 August.

Cleopatra might have used poison, rather than a snake

Popular belief states that Cleopatra died by allowing an Egyptian cobra, an asp, to bite her. However, Roman-era writers such as Plutarch, Strabo and Cassius Deo have maintained that she might have poisoned herself using either a toxic ointment or by introducing it to her body by using a sharp implement such as a hairpin.

The Death of Cleopatra (1796–1797), by Jean-Baptiste Regnault

Image Credit: Jean-Baptiste Regnault, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Indeed, there were two slight pricks on her arm – which led to the snake bite theory – but they could also have been caused by a hairpin or hollow comb filled with poison. The snake is also said to have been smuggled into the mausoleum in a basket of figs. However, no snake or basket of figs was found.

Octavian may have popularised the snakebite story

Figs and snakes carried a sexual connotation, which may have been a deliberately calculated move by Octavian to portray Cleopatra as a foreign seductress.

Indeed, he favoured the story that she died from a snake bite, and during his triumphal procession he had her image created with an asp clinging to it.

She might have been forced to die by suicide

Before Cleopatra died, Octavian faced a dilemma: he considered whether to keep her alive and parade her in his triumphal victory. However, he remembered that his younger half-sister Arsinoë had been paraded by Caesar, and instead of glorifying the ruler, it had aroused sympathy.

Cleopatra could not be allowed to live if she would not yield to Octavian’s negotiations. Equally, Octavian could not be seen as directly responsible for her death. It has thus been hypothesised that Octavian forced Cleopatra to die by suicide, and allowed her to do it however she chose.

However, what is consistent across all accounts is that Cleopatra died around 12 August, aged 39 years, wearing her most beautiful clothing, her body arranged on a golden couch and the emblems of royalty placed in her hands.

Here are 10 facts about Antony’s life and death.

1. He was something of a troubled teenager

Born in 83 BC to a plebeian family with good connections, Antony lost his father aged 12, which worsened his family’s financial woes. According to the historian Plutarch, Antony was a teenager who broke the rules.

He spent many of his teenage years wandering Rome’s back streets and taverns, drinking, gambling and scandalising his contemporaries with his love affairs and sexual relationships. His spending habits drove him into debt, and in 58 BC he fled to Greece in order to escape his creditors.

2. Antony was a key ally of Caesar’s in the Gallic Wars

Antony’s military career began in 57 BC, and he helped secure important victories at Alexandrium and Machaerus the same year. His associations with Publius Clodius Pulcher meant he quickly managed to secure a position on Julius Caesar’s military staff during the conquest of Gaul.

The two developed friendly relations and Antony surpassed himself as a commander, ensuring that when Caesar’s career advanced, so did his.

3. He briefly served as governor of Italy

As Caesar’s Master of the Horse (second in command), when Caesar left for Egypt to strengthen Roman power in the kingdom there, Antony was left in charge of governing Italy and restoring order to an area that had been torn apart by war.

Unfortunately for Antony, he quickly and unsurprisingly came up against political challenges, not least over the question of debt forgiveness, which had been raised by one of Pompey’s former generals, Dolabella.

The instability, and near anarchy, which debates over this caused led Caesar to return to Italy early. The relationship between the pair was severely damaged as a result, with Antony being stripped his positions and denied political appointments for several years.

4. He avoided his patron’s grisly fate – but only just

Julius Caesar was assassinated on 15 March 44 BC. Antony had gone with Caesar to the Senate that day but had been waylaid at the entrance to the Theatre of Pompey.

When the conspirators set up on Caesar, there was nothing that could be done: Caesar’s attempts to flee the scene were fruitless with no one in the vicinity to help him.

5. Caesar’s death thrust Antony into the centre of a battle for power

Antony was the sole consul following Caesar’s death. He quickly seized the state treasury and Calpurnia, Caesar’s widow, granted him possession of Caesar’s papers and properties, giving him clout as Caesar’s heir and effectively making him leader of the Caesarian faction.

Despite Caesar’s will making it clear his teenage nephew Octavian was his heir, Antony continued to act as head of the Caesarian faction and portioned off some of Octavian’s inheritance for himself.

6. Antony ended up in a war against Octavian

Unsurprisingly, Octavian was unhappy at being denied his inheritance, and Antony was increasingly seen as something of a tyrant by those in Rome.

Although it was illegal, Octavian recruited Caesar’s veterans to fight alongside him, and as Antony’s popularity waned, some of his forces defected. Antony was roundly defeated at the Battle of Mutina in April 43 BC.

7. But they soon became allies once more

In an attempt to unite Caesar’s legacy, Octavian sent messengers to negotiate an alliance with Mark Antony. Along with Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, the governor of Transalpine Gaul and Nearer Spain, they formed a three man dictatorship to govern the Republic for five years.

Known as the Second Triumvirate today, its aim was to avenge Caesar’s death and to make war upon his murderers. The men split power pretty much equally between them and purged Rome of their enemies, confiscating wealth and property, stripping citizenship and issuing death warrants. Octavian married Antony’s stepdaughter Claudia to reinforce their alliance.

An 1880 depiction of the Second Triumvirate.

Image Credit: Public Domain

8. Relations quickly became strained

Octavian and Antony were never comfortable bedfellows: both men wanted power and glory, and despite attempts to share power, their ongoing hostility eventually erupted into civil war and resulted in the demise of the Roman Republic.

On Octavian’s orders, the Senate declared war on Cleopatra and labelled Antony a traitor. A year later, Antony was defeated at the Battle of Actium by Octavian’s forces.

9. He famously had an affair with Cleopatra

Antony and Cleopatra’s doomed love affair is one of the most famous in history. In 41 BC, Antony ruled over Rome’s eastern provinces and established his headquarters in Tarsos. He repeatedly wrote to Cleopatra, asking her to visit him.

She sailed up the Kydnos River in a luxurious ship, hosting two days and nights of entertainment on her arrival in Tarsos. Antony and Cleopatra quickly developed a sexual relationship and before she departed, Cleopatra invited Antony to visit her in Alexandria.

Whilst they certainly seem to have been sexually attracted to one another, there was also a significant political advantage to their relationship. Antony was one of the most powerful men in Rome and Cleopatra was pharaoh of Egypt. As allies, they offered each other a degree of security and protection.

10. He ended up committing suicide

Following Octavian’s invasion of Egypt in 30 BC, Antony believed he had run out of options. With nowhere else left to turn and believing his lover, Cleopatra, was already dead, he turned his sword on himself.

After inflicting a mortal wound on himself, he was told Cleopatra was still alive. His friends took the dying Antony to Cleopatra’s hiding place and he died in her arms. She conducted his burial rites, and took her own life shortly afterwards.

The pharaoh’s role in the empire was hugely important, transcending that of a typical monarch in that it straddled both religious and political spheres. Indeed, pharaohs were considered to be near-deities who were nonetheless saddled with the distinctly earthly responsibilities of statesmen and women.

Though their reigns stretch back deep into antiquity, the lives of the pharaohs are still vividly evoked by the remarkable treasures of Ancient Egypt that continue to be unearthed today. Here are 10 facts about the pharaohs.

1. They were both religious and political leaders

It was a pharaoh’s responsibility to lead Egypt in both religious and political matters. These dual roles came with distinct titles: “High Priest of Every Temple” and the “Lord of the Two Lands”.

As a spiritual leader, every pharaoh was expected to carry out sacred rituals and effectively act as a conduit between the gods and the people. Political leadership, meanwhile, encompassed more pragmatic concerns like legislation, diplomacy and the provision of food and resources to their subjects.

2. Only pharaohs could make offerings to the gods

In their roles as high priests, the pharaohs made sacred offerings to the gods on a daily basis. It was believed that only the pharaoh could enter a holy temple and commune with the spirits of the gods.

3. The pharaohs were regarded as incarnations of Horus

Horus was depicted in many forms but most commonly either as a falcon or a man with a falcon head.

In life, the pharaohs were believed to be incarnations of the deity Horus before in death becoming Osiris, the god of the afterlife. Each new pharaoh was considered to be a new incarnation of Horus.

4. Akhenaten introduced monotheism, but it didn’t last

The reign of Akhenaten represents a brief departure from polytheism in Ancient Egypt. Akhenaten was named Amenhotep IV at birth but changed his name in accordance with his radical monotheistic beliefs.

The meaning of his new name, “He who is of service to the Aten”, honoured what he believed to be the one true god – Aten, the Sun God. After Akhenaten’s death, Egypt rapidly returned to polytheism and the traditional gods he had disavowed.

5. Make-up was obligatory

Both male and female pharaohs wore make-up, most notably an application of black kohl around their eyes. It’s thought that this served several purposes: cosmetic, practical (as a means of reducing light reflection), and spiritual due to the fact that the almond-shaped eye make-up enhanced their resemblance to the god Horus. 

6. The crook and flail were important symbols of pharaonic authority

Here, the god of the afterlife, Osiris, is shown holding a crook in his left hand and a flail in his right.

Often depicted in the hands of pharaohs, the crook and flail were widely used symbols of power in Ancient Egypt. Typically depicted together and held across the chest of pharaohs, they formed an insignia of kingship.

The crook (heka), a cane with a hooked handle, represented the pharaoh’s shepherd-like role of caring for his subjects, while interpretations of the flail’s (nekhakha) symbolism vary.

A rod with three strands of beads attached to the top, the flail was either a weapon used by shepherds to defend their flock, or a tool to thresh grain.

If the former interpretation of the fail’s use is accurate, then it might symbolise a pharaoh’s firm leadership and their responsibility to maintain order, while as a thresher, it might symbolise the pharaoh’s role as a provider.

7. They often married their relatives

Like many royals through history, Egyptian pharaohs weren’t averse to marrying within the family to preserve royal bloodlines. Marriage to sisters and daughters was not unheard of.

Studies of Tutankhamun’s mummified body have revealed that he was the product of incest, a fact that undoubtedly led to health issues and undesirable characteristics, including an overbite, feminine hips, unusually large breasts and a club foot. Tutankhamun was just 19 when he died.

8. Tutankhamun may be the most famous pharaoh, but his reign was relatively inauspicious

Tutankhamun’s fame derives almost exclusively from the discovery of his tomb in 1922 – one of the great archaeological finds of the 20th century. “King Tut”, as he became known after the discovery of his spectacular burial site, only reigned for 10 years and died aged just 20.

9. Their beards weren’t real

The pharaohs were typically depicted with long braided beards but in truth they were all more than likely clean shaven. The beards were fakes, worn to imitate the god Osiris, who is depicted sporting a handsome beard. Indeed, facial hair was such a must-have that even Hatshepsut, the first female pharaoh, sported a fake beard.

10. The largest of the pyramids is Khufu’s Great Pyramid

The Great Pyramid of Giza is the oldest and only surviving wonder of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Built over a 10 to 20-year period, beginning around 2580 BC, it was designed as a tomb for the Fourth Dynasty pharaoh Khufu.

It was also the first of the three pyramids in the Giza complex, which is also home to the Pyramid of Menkaure, the Pyramid of Khafre and the Great Sphinx. The Great Pyramid remains one of the largest structures ever built and an awe-inspiring testament to the Ancient Egyptians’ architectural ambition and ingenuity.

He ended a long cycle of internal conflict in the Roman world, a territory that Julius Caesar had realised was too big to be ruled by its old institutions.

Caesar leaves a messy inheritance

Julius Caesar’s extraordinary personal power was the prime motive for his assassins, who wanted to revive the power of the Senate in Roman politics. However, the dictator had been enormously popular, and the aristocratic plotters who killed him would soon be faced by men ready to fight to take his place.

Antony was Caesar’s man for years. He was his deputy when he crossed the Rubicon River into Italy in 49 BC to trigger the civil war with Pompey, and was his co-Consul when he died. He was powerful and popular with lots of military experience.

Octavian was Caesar’s great-nephew and had been named as his heir and adopted son in a will made two years before Caesar died. He had proved effective in his short military career, and his links to Caesar gave him instant popularity, particularly with the army. He was only 19 when Caesar died and away from Rome, but would not stay so for long.

After putting down revolts in support of Caesar’s assassins, Octavian and Antony ruled as part of a Triumvirate with Lepidus until 36 BC, when they took joint power, splitting the Empire into Octavian’s West and Antony’s East.

Swords drawn: Octavian vs Antony

Just two years later, Antony went too far when he struck a deal with Cleopatra, his lover, that handed Roman territory in Egypt to her and the son she had borne Caesar during her long affair with the Roman leader.

Octavian’s sister was Antony’s wife, and he’d already publicised his adultery. When Antony married Cleopatra in 32 BC and seemed on the verge of setting up an alternative Imperial capital in Egypt, Octavian persuaded the Senate to declare war on Cleopatra, who they blamed for seducing their former hero.

As Octavian had foreseen, Antony backed Cleopatra, decisively cutting his ties with Rome and Octavian set off with 200,000 legionaries to punish the renegade pair.

The war was won in one decisive sea battle, off Actium in Greece. Octavian’s fleet of smaller, faster vessels with more experienced crews devastated Antony’s ships and his army surrendered without doing battle.

Antony fled with Cleopatra to Alexandria while Octavian plotted his next move.

He marched to Egypt, cementing the support of legions and Roman client kingdoms along the way. Antony was massively outnumbered, with around 10,000 men at his command who were quickly defeated by one of Octavian’s allies as most of the remainder of Antony’s forces surrendered.

The lovers’ suicides of Antony and Cleopatra

With no hope left, Antony messily killed himself on 1 August 30 BC, after apparently failing to strike a deal to protect Cleopatra.

Cleopatra then attempted to secure a deal for herself and Caesar’s son, Caesarion, but Octavian refused to listen, having the young man killed as he fled and warning his mother that she would be paraded in his triumph back in Rome.

Octavian was desperate to keep Cleopatra alive. He wanted a high-status prisoner, and her treasure to pay his troops. Cleopatra was able to kill herself though – possibly using a poisoned snake.

Nothing now stood between Octavian and total power. Egypt was granted to him as his personal possession and by 27 BC the granting of the titles Augustus and Princeps confirmed him as Emperor.

Telling the tale

The story of Antony and Cleopatra – the great Roman and the beautiful queen who caused him to turn his back on his nation – is compelling.

Romans and Egyptians no doubt told the tale many times and one surviving account has proved the most durable. Plutarch’s Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romans was published in the late 1st century, pairing men from both civilisations.

Antony was paired with Demetrius, the king of Macedonia who died in enemy captivity and spent many years with a courtesan as his companion.

Plutarch was interested in character rather than history and his book was a defining text of the rediscovery of classical civilisation during the Renaissance. Among its most devoted readers was one William Shakespeare.

Shakespeare’s Antony and Cleopatra is a fairly faithful telling of the tale, going so far as to lift some phrases directly from Sir Thomas North’s translation of Plutarch’s work.

Antony and Cleopatra would both be remembered by history as great public figures, but their love story – no matter how embellished – has taken them into different territory. Both, and Cleopatra in particular, have been portrayed in literature, film, dance and every other medium of art countless times.

Ptolomy’s power play

Cleopatra’s father Ptolemy XII Auletes had decided to ally with Rome, as he rightly believed it was becoming the region’s greatest power. But there were powerful Egyptians and Greeks who disagreed with this policy and decided it would be better to have Cleopatra in control.

Marble statue of Ptolemy XII, 1st century BC (left); Egyptian-style statue of Ptolemy XII found at the Temple of the Crocodile in Fayoum, Egypt (right). Image credit: Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

So Ptolemy paid Rome to invade Egypt and guarantee his place in power, incurring large debts by borrowing from a Roman businessman in the process. As was the custom of the Greek Ptolemy dynasty in Egypt, Cleopatra and her brother Ptolemy XIII were married in order to maintain the family’s power and inherited the rule of Egypt upon the death of their father in 51 BC.

A pair of civil wars

During Caesar’s civil war with Pompey, the latter fled to Egypt. Caesar pursued Pompey — who had already been murdered by a trio of treasonous Roman military men who were stationed there — and defeated his armies at Alexandria.

Meanwhile, in the midst of a civil war between her supporters and those of her brother, Cleopatra sought help from Caesar. In order to avoid being caught by her brother’s forces, she was secreted into Alexandria while rolled up in a carpet. Her servant, disguised as a merchant, unrolled the Queen in front of Caesar inside the general’s suite.

A mutually beneficial relationship

The pair’s need of one another was mutual. Cleopatra required the might of Caesar’s armies to install her as ruler of Egypt, while Caesar was in need of Cleopatra’s vast wealth. She is believed to have been the world’s richest woman at the time and able to finance Caesar’s return to power in Rome.

Bust of Cleopatra VII (left); Bust of Julius Caesar (right). Image credit: Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Caesar declared Cleopatra and Ptolemy XIII to be joint rulers, but this was not accepted by Ptolemy’s supporters, who laid siege to the palace in Alexandria. Meanwhile Cleopatra’s younger sister, Arsinoe, escaped and declared her own rebellion. Caesar and Cleopatra were stuck inside for several months before Roman reinforcements arrived, allowing Caesar to take all of Alexandria.

Placing Ptolemy XII’s daughter on the throne meant she would inherit her father’s debts to Rome and was capable of paying them off.

With Cleopatra successfully installed, the couple cruised the Nile on the Queen’s royal barge, after which Caesar returned to Rome, leaving a Cleopatra with child.

Cleopatra in Rome

The Queen, who was unpopular in Alexandria, required the protection of Roman legions. After a year she came to Rome where Caesar housed her on one of his estates.

In Rome Caesar had a gilded statue of Cleopatra erected, but it is not known if their affair continued. Although marriage between a Roman and a foreigner was not permitted (not to mention the fact that Caesar was already married), he never denied fathering her child.

A Roman painting in the House of Marcus Fabius Rufus at Pompeii, Italy, depicting Cleopatra as Venus Genetrix and her son Caesarion as a cupid. Image credit: Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

The Goddess-Queen of Egypt did not fit into Roman morals and upon Caesar’s assassination, Cleopatra returned to Egypt where she later had another legendary affair and illegal marriage with Marc Antony.

Caesar’s son

During the time in which Caesar stayed with Cleopatra in Egypt, he is believed to have fathered her son, Ptolemy XV Caesarion, born on 24 June 47 BC. If Caesarion was indeed Caesar’s son as his name suggests, he was Caesar’s only biological male issue.

Caesarion, the last king of Egypt’s Ptolemy dynasty, ruled together with his mother until Octavian (later Augustus) had him killed on 23 August 30 BC. He was Egypt’s sole ruler for the 11 days between Cleopatra’s death and his own.