Henry II (r. 1154-1189)

Henry’s mother Matilda was embroiled in a civil war (known as The Anarchy) with her cousin, King Stephen, for much of the mid 12th century. When Henry inherited the throne in 1154, he proved himself to be a capable ruler, re-established royal authority and English domination of Wales, as well as ensuring his lands in France were under solid control. 

His marriage to Eleanor of Aquitaine further cemented his position in France: their marriage proved to be fruitful, producing 8 children in total. Henry is perhaps most famous for the murder of Thomas Becket in Canterbury Cathedral in 1170: the culmination of years of tension as Henry tried to reform the relationship between church and state.  

Unusually, Henry crowned his eldest son Henry during his lifetime in order to ensure the succession. The Young Henry, as he is known, became increasingly frustrated at his father’s inability to give him any real power: in 1173, he, along with Eleanor of Aquitaine and several of his siblings, rebelled against Henry in an event known as The Great Revolt.

Troubled relationships between father and sons continued throughout the rest of Henry’s life as they vied for power and land.  

Engraving of Henry II by J. Smith. (Image credit: CC / New York Public Library).

Richard I (r. 1189-99)

The third son of Henry and Eleanor, it seemed initially unlikely that Richard would inherit: however, his elder brothers all predeceased their father, leaving Richard as heir. A strong and capable military leader, Richard spent most of his reign campaigning on the Third Crusade, winning notable victories against Saladin.  

Richard and Saladin. (Image credit: CC / British Library).

Whilst Richard has become a figure of mythic proportions, known by his epithet – the Lionheart, he was far from a dutiful or good king to his subjects back home, seeing England and his subjects primarily as a source of revenue.   

John (r.1199-1216)

Known as ‘Bad King John’, John’s reign was far from successful. He lost large quantities of English lands in Normandy, leading to the collapse of the Angevin Empire established by his father, Henry II. 

Attempts to regain these lands lasted for most of the rest of his reign, meaning these years were characterised by high taxes as well as military reforms and attempts to build continental alliances.  

On returning to England following another defeat in 1214, John was met by a revolt from his barons. Unhappy at the high taxes and a lack of consideration for their views, they raised an army and marched on London, Lincoln and Exeter.

John met the leaders at Runnymede, where he consented to sign Magna Carta: technically a peace treaty, it was also full of proposals for broader political reform.  

Despite this, neither side really attempted to stick to the bargain: the First Barons’ War consumed most of John’s subsequent reign. He died in 1216, probably from dysentery, having lost a significant part of his baggage in The Wash – one chronicler claims this baggage included the Crown Jewels. 

King John. (Image credit: CC / National Trust).

Henry III (r.1216-1272)

Henry inherited the crown as a minor, so for the early years of his reign he was under the guardianship of William Marshal – a powerful knight appointed by John. The first ten years of his reign was predominantly focused on ending the Barons’ War and restoring royal authority: Henry assumed formal control of his government in 1227.  

Instead of building on the relatively solid foundation laid down for him, Henry’s lax application of his constitutional rights and lack of discipline in court led to the gradual collapse of royal authority. 

His strongly anti-Jewish policies became increasingly disliked, the presence of the powerful Poitevin faction at court caused tensions, and Henry’s increasing obsession with obtaining the kingdom of Sicily all strained relations with his nobles: by 1258, he faced a revolt from his barons. 

Henry agreed to the Provisions of Oxford – an attempt to limit the ability of the king and leading nobles to abuse their power, and forcing Henry to hold triannual parliaments. These were reinforced by the Provisions of Westminster (1259), which Henry’s son and heir Edward helped push through, having allied himself with Simon de Montfort, a leading baron.  

A period of instability followed, in which power was held by several jostling factions eventually culminated in the Second Barons’ War, which saw Henry and Simon de Montfort, each backed by a number of barons, clash on the battlefield. After a decisive victory at the Battle of Evesham, Henry issued the Statute of Marlborough which removed most of the curtailments on his authority, whilst tightening them on nobles.  

Drawing of a stained glass window of Chartres Cathedral, depicting Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester. (Image credit: CC / Gallica Digital Library).

A keen patron of art and architecture, Henry spent large sums of money on royal palaces and castles, including those at Westminster, Windsor, Dover, Lincoln and The Tower of London. He was also extremely devout, regularly going on pilgrimages, attending Mass daily and giving generously to religious causes, particularly those involved in relieving poverty.  

Edward I (r.1272-1307)

Nicknamed Edward Longshanks, at 6’2″, Edward was unusually tall for his time, which many considered gave him a somewhat intimidating presence. Edward initiated war with Scotland which lasted long after his death, as well as a full scale conquest of Wales following a minor rebellion. 

His harsh attitudes towards these two countries has been criticised since his death, as has the fact that in 1290, he issued an Edict of Expulsion against the Jews in England at the time.  

However, Edward did initiate a range of reforms to common law, particularly surrounding feudal liberties, as well as reforming aspects of royal administration.

Parliament became a permanent fixture in Edward’s reign, mainly because it was needed to grant taxes. Expensive wars meant Edward needed a lot of these grants, enabling Parliament to become a fixture in a way it had not been previously.  

Thought to be an image of Edward I. (Image credit: CC / Westminster Abbey).

Edward II (r.1307-1327)

Edward II’s reign was plagued by failure. Crowned in 1307, he married Isabella of France in 1308 in an effort to end tensions between England and France.  

Edward’s reliance on male favourites, most notably Piers Gaveston, proved deeply unpopular at court: nobles demanded his banishment, and Edward’s refusal to do so fully led to a complete breakdown in relations between the king and his barons.  

Combined with heavy defeats in Scotland and famine, Edward quickly lost what little popularity he had. Edward’s new favourites, the Despensers, were as unpopular as Gaveston, and further exacerbated tensions as they attempted to strengthen their grip on power.

Edward’s wife Isabella began to work against him, going rogue on a diplomatic mission to France and returning with a small army in 1326, led by her lover, the exiled Roger Mortimer. Edward was forced to relinquish his crown to his young son Edward, and died shortly afterwards: he is generally believed to have been murdered.

Edward III (r.1327-77)

One of the most popular Plantagenet kings in his lifetime, Edward III reigned for fifty years, overseeing England’s transformation into a formidable military power and the development of Parliament. Crowned aged 14 following his father’s deposition, Edward began to rule personally in 1330, overthrowing and executing Mortimer.  

Edward III, from the 1430 Bruges Garter Book made by William Bruges. (Image credit: CC / Wikimedia).

In 1337, Edward declared himself the rightful heir to the French throne, beginning what is now known as the Hundred Years’ War. Costly and all-consuming initially, Edward and the English Army won significant victories at Crecy and Calais, as well as a major victory in Scotland (who at that time were allies of the French).

The Black Death struck shortly after that, severely reducing manpower as more men were needed for agricultural jobs back in England. The first chapter of the war was closed with the Treaty of Bretigny in 1360, where Edward renounced his claims to the throne.  

Edward’s later reign is generally perceived to be full of failures: international and domestic. Parliament’s influence grew as it was needed to grant taxation so often, and royal authority began to wane. Edward also created the Order of the Garter (which still exists today), reviving chivalry at his court as a way of cementing national identity for his nobles.  

Richard II (r.1377-1399)

Largely known to people through Shakespeare’s interpretation, Richard II’s deposition marked the start of one of the most turbulent periods in English history: the Wars of the Roses. Grandson of Edward III, Richard inherited the throne in 1377, aged 10, with a series of councillors to help guide him.

The Peasants’ Revolt (1381) saw Richard play a relatively major part for a boy of 14 as he met with rebels to initially agree to their demands. Although he granted clemency, he went back on his original agreements, and suppressed the rebellion relatively harshly.  

Miniature from La Prinse et mort du roy Richart (Book of the Capture and Death of King Richard II). (Image credit: CC / Virgil Master).

Many historians consider this to have been a pivotal moment in Richard’s understanding of kingship. He believed in absolute royal authority and his own prerogative: as a result, he attempted to lessen the overall power of the aristocracy whilst maintaining a small group of favourites on whom he became dependent.

Richard’s court was lavish and he was a keen patron of the arts: both of these things needed money to maintain, and high taxes particularly after the war with France was over, made him increasingly unpopular.  

1397-99 is known by many as Richard’s ‘tyranny’: Richard arrested and tried several men who he felt were a threat to his power, acting in a way which made his nobles nervous.

In 1398, he called the Parliament of Shrewsbury, which declared that no restraints could legally be put on the king. This proved too much for his nobles: when Henry Bolingbroke, Richard’s cousin, invaded England in 1399, he received a warm welcome – Richard was deposed and Henry crowned king.

Surprisingly enough the 14th century does not figure on the popular English invasion list, despite the fact that on more than 60 occasions between 1325 and 1390 French-led or French-sponsored forces landed on English territory and carried out significant damage.

Coastal raiding

These were not trivial episodes. They could be extremely destructive. For example in 1339 when the French fleet, accompanied by allies from Genoa and Monaco rowing Mediterranean oared galleys, made their way up the Solent, and landed in Southampton, they killed civilians, and looted the entire city taking away valuable goods such as wine and wool from the merchants’ cellars.

In an act designed to cripple the economy of the port the allies destroyed documents, seals and records needed for its functioning, and before withdrawing the marines burnt the entire town. For several decades, Southampton, possibly England’s major port, was out of action. It was as desolate as a bombed city in the 20th century. And we can guess that many wealthy merchant families were ruined.

The sight of a French fleet approaching the coast was meant to be terrifying. In the 14th century, fighters dressed up to fight, and ships were highly decorated with banners, standards, and war pennants. The fleets that attacked England included many oared galleys from Genoa and Monaco, a type of ship hardly ever seen in English waters.

One can imagine the cry “Galley from Monaco!” upon sight of a ship with the distinctive red and white Monegasque coat of arms on its sail, instilling fear and panic among the civilian population.

Full-scale invasions

While these raids were taking place, many full-scale big invasions were also launched with the intention of removing the anti-French English royal family. Almost all failed for a surprisingly wide range of reasons.

In 1340, an entire French invasion fleet ready to carry 19,000 men was entirely destroyed by 400 battle hardened English soldiers led by Edward III in person, in Sluys harbour at the mouth of the Rhine. In this case, Edward’s audacity in daring to take the fleet on was a key factor, as were his brilliant tactical battlefield instincts.

Detail from Grandes Chroniques de France by Jean Fouquet, circa 1460.

Image Credit: Public Domain

Other plans were simply ill-thought out – like when the disinherited pro-French Welsh Prince, Owen Llawgoch set out with a Franco-Welsh landing force to encourage the people of Wales to rise up against King Edward. But the fleet set out in December, and not surprisingly was unable even to get round Land’s End.

After 13 days at sea, the fleet had to admit defeat not by the English but by one of England’s most reliable allies – the weather, supplementing astonishingly foolhardy timing.

In May 1387, a French army landed in Scotland ready to lead a Franco-Scottish invasion of England, with a second French army ready to land in Southern England and join in the middle.

The slow moving force did not arrive near Newcastle until the end of June by which time the fast and responsive English had summoned a huge army, marched north and met them on the way. Dwarfed by the English volunteer force the French quietly withdrew.

The following year in a return match a gigantic French invasion force of 100,000 fighting men and 10,000 mounted knights all ready to go was trapped in the ill-fated harbour of Sluys by pro-English gale-force winds coming down from the North. As autumn drew on they gave up and went home.

Deposing a king

Ironically, the only invasion that went according to plan during this period was the one led by Queen Isabella, French wife of Edward II of England with the support of the Flemish based fleet, leading to the removal of Queen Isabella’s husband Edward II in favour of her young son Prince Edward.

Only Isabella was able to put together the complex pieces of a jigsaw that had to fit together properly. The landing took place without disaster, allies on the ground were ready and supportive, and Edward II fled, allowing Isabella to realise her ambition to put her young son on the throne as Edward III. This was not a role that medieval queens were supposed to assume which probably explains her title: “She-Wolf of France”.

The background to these events was the Hundred Years’ War, waged around the claim of Edward III that he was the rightful King of France – a theory supported by no one in France.

Edward III.

A medieval Dad’s Army

Unlike the great set-piece battles that were waged on the Continent during this period – Crécy and Poitiers for example, where well-trained English and French knights, who all subscribed to the same chivalric ideal, slugged it out together according to certain rules accompanied on many an occasion by armour-clad monarchs – for the raids onto English territory the picture is of professional French fighters interfacing with determined, warlike and well-prepared English civilians, from all classes of society from peasant up to gentry.

During almost all of this period the English Crown organised what was essentially a sort of medieval Dad’s Army in order to fight off the French. In the coastal areas up to three leagues inland all males between 16 and 60 were liable for service when needed, and when an invasion scare was on, it was an offence to run off inland.

For much of the period, archery on Sundays was compulsory, and games such as football were banned. Even clerics were at times ordered by King Edward himself to do their duty.

And on many occasions the amateur English led. In 1377, for example, the 60 year old Abbott of Battle, on horseback in full armour, chased the French professionals back to their ships at Winchelsea. This was a revival of the system feudal obligation that had largely become obsolete in the previous century as a result of the rise of the professional paid soldier.

Keepers of the maritime lands or commissioners of array appointed by the Crown had the power to recruit able bodied males between the ages of 16 and 60 into defensive forces. They were obliged to train, maintain and keep them in a state of readiness. The system worked and there is plenty of evidence that the people in the coastal areas took their responsibilities seriously.

The Prince of Monaco

In 1372 the Monaco Prince Rainier Grimaldi (ancestor of the current Monaco Princely family) was cruising along close to the English coast in a fleet of nine galleys looking for a suitable place to land and carry out a raid.

A posse of English defenders appeared but when Price Rainier tried to row away he found that his ship was grounded. The English waded up to the ship. “Surrender to the King of France!” they called. Rainier was puzzled. “What do you call him?” he asks. “His name is Edward.” they called. Of course – Edward claimed the throne of France.

Rainer refused to surrender – he and his crew started to fight them off. The galley was surrounded. The water filled up with bodies, but the English did not give up. Capture or ransom looked likely for the Prince.

The elements came to the rescue; the tide lifted the galley off the rocks; the men of Monaco rowed frantically until the English could no longer follow. The ordinary people had triumphed over a prominent member of the chivalric class.

Duncan Cameron has been a regular contributor to publications on international business, and Bloomsbury International published his most recent work. In recent years Duncan has also been engaged in heritage work in Brighton and saved two buildings from destruction by developers by winning them Grade II listed building status.

Invasion: The Forgotten French Bid to Conquer England is his latest book and was published on 15 December 2019, by Amberley Publishing.

Through his military campaigns in France, Edward transformed England from being a vassal of French kings and nobles into a military power that led to English victories against France’s King Philip VI’s forces and winning battles due to the superiority of English longbowmen against Philip’s crossbowmen.

Here are 10 facts about King Edward III.

1. He had a contested claim to the French throne

Edward’s claim to the French throne through his mother, Isabella of France, was not recognised in France. It was a bold claim that was to eventually lead to England becoming embroiled in the Hundred Years’ War (1337 – 1453). The war was largely futile due to the thousands of lives lost and the depletion of England’s treasury to fund battles.

Edward’s army did have successes, such as the naval victory at Sluys (1340) which gave England control of the Channel. Other victorious battles for the English were at Crecy (1346) and Poitiers (1356), where they were led by Edward’s eldest son, the Black Prince. The only long-lasting gain from Edward’s French wars was Calais.

2. Edward’s son was nicknamed the Black Prince

Edward III is often confused with the Black Prince, his eldest son, Edward of Woodstock. The young man gained the moniker due to his striking jet black military armour.

The Black Prince was one of the most successful military commanders during the conflicts of the Hundred Years’ War and took part in expeditions to Calais, seizing the French city after which the Treaty of Bretigny was negotiated, ratifying terms of agreement between King Edward III and King John II of France.

3. His reign was marred by the Black Death

The Black Death, a bubonic pandemic originating in Afro-Eurasia in 1346, spread to Europe causing the deaths of up to 200 million people and killing between 30-60% of the European population. The plague in England claimed Edward’s 12-year-old daughter Joan on 1 July 1348.

As the disease began to deplete the backbone of the country, Edward implemented a radical piece of legislation, the Statue of Labourers in 1351. It sought to address the shortage problem of labourers by fixing wages at their pre-plague level. It also checked the right of peasants to travel out of their parishes, by asserting that lords had first claim on their serfs’ services.

4. He was embroiled in complicated Scottish politics

Edward assisted a group of English magnates known as the Disinherited to reclaim lands they had lost in Scotland. After the magnates staged a successful invasion of Scotland, they attempted to replace the Scottish infant king with their own alternative, Edward Balliol.

After Balliol was expelled, the magnates were forced to seek the help of King Edward who responded by laying siege of the border town Berwick and defeating the Scottish at the Battle of Halidon Hill.

5. He oversaw the creation of the Commons and the Lords

Certain English institutions took recognisable form during Edward III’s reign. This new style of governing had Parliament divided into two houses as we know today: the Commons and the Lords. The procedure of impeachment was used against corrupt or incompetent ministers. Edward also founded the Order of the Garter (1348), while justices of the peace (JPs) acquired more formal status under his rule.

6. He popularised the use of English rather than French

During Edward’s reign, English began to replace French as the official language of mainland Britain. Before, for some two centuries, French had been the language of English aristocracy and nobles, while English was only associated with peasants.  

7. His mistress, Alice Perrers, was deeply unpopular

After the death of Edward’s popular wife Queen Philippa, he acquired a mistress, Alice Perrers. When she was seen to be exercising too much power over the king, she was banished from court. Later, after Edward suffered a stroke and died, rumours circled that Perrers had stripped his body of jewels. 

A depiction of Philippa of Hainault in Jean Froissart’s chronicle.

Image Credit: Public Domain

8. His father was probably murdered

Edward III is associated with one of the most controversial English kings in history, his father Edward II, known for his idiosyncrasies and more shockingly for the time, his male lover, Piers Gaveston. The love affair irritated the English court which led to the brutal murder of Gaveston, possibly instigated by Edward’s French wife, Queen Isabella of France.

Eleanor and her lover Roger Mortimer plotted to depose Edward II. His capture by their army and imprisonment resulted in one of the most alleged gruesome deaths of a monarch in history – that by a red-hot poker inserted into his rectum. Whether this savage and violent act was carried out of cruelty or simply to kill the king without leaving visible signs is still debated. 

9. He championed chivalry

Unlike his father and grandfather, Edward III created a new atmosphere of camaraderie between the crown and nobles. It was a strategy born out of reliance on the nobility when it came to purposes of war.

Prior to Edward’s reign, his unpopular father was in constant conflict with members of the peerage. But Edward III went out his way to be generous creating new peerages and in 1337, at the outset of war with France, created 6 new earls on the day of conflict commencing.

An illuminated manuscript miniature of Edward III of England. The king is wearing a blue mantle, decorated with the Order of the Garter, over his plate armour.

Image Credit: Public Domain

10. He was accused of sleaze and corruption in later years

In Edward’s last years he suffered military failures abroad. At home, discontent grew amongst the public, who believed his government to be corrupt.

In 1376 Edward made attempts to restore Parliament’s reputation with the Good Parliament Act: it sought to regorm the government by cleaning up the corrupt Royal Court and calling for close scrutiny of the Royal accounts. Those believed to be pilfering from the treasury were arrested, put on trial and imprisoned. 

Bampton’s aggressive conduct enraged the villagers and violent clashes ensued in which he barely escaped with his life. News quickly spread of this insurrection, and by 2 June both Essex and Kent were in full revolt.

Today known as the Peasants’ Revolt, the ensuing conflict spread as far as York and Somerset and culminated in the bloody storming of London. Led by Wat Tyler, this saw the killing of a number royal government officials and eventually Tyler himself, before Richard II was forced to address the rebels’ demands.

But what exactly forced the 14th century peasantry of England to breaking point?

1. The Black Death (1346-53)

The Black Death of 1346-53 ravaged the population of England by 40-60%, and those who survived found themselves in a radically different landscape.

Due to the significantly lower population, food prices decreased and the demand for labour skyrocketed. Workers could now afford to charge higher wages for their time and travel outside of their hometown for the best paid opportunities.

Many inherited land and property from their deceased family members and were now able to dress in finer clothes and eat better food usually reserved for the higher classes. The lines between the social hierarchies began to blur.

Miniature by Pierart dou Tielt depicting the people of Tournai bury victims of the Black Death, c.1353 (Image credit: Public domain)

Many were unable to comprehend that this was a socio-economic factor of the pandemic however, and viewed it as subordination by the peasant classes. Augustinian clergyman Henry Knighton wrote that:

‘If anyone wanted to hire them he had to submit to their demands, for either his fruit and standing corn would be lost or he had to pander to the arrogance and greed of the workers.’

Strife grew between the peasantry and the upper classes – a strife that would only heighten in the following decades as authorities attempted to batter them back down into subservience.

2. The Statute of Labourers (1351)

In 1349, Edward III laid out the Ordinance of Labourers that, after wide dissent, had to be  reinforced by Parliament 1351 with the Statute of Labourers. The statute attempted to set a maximum wage for labourers in order to halt the peasant classes’ demands for better pay and realign them with their accepted station. 

Rates were set at pre-plague levels, when an economic depression had forced wages lower that they would have ordinarily been, and it became a crime to refuse work or travel to other towns for higher pay.

Though the statute is thought to have been widely ignored by the workers, its instillation did little to help the unstable class divisions that continued to emerge, and caused much distaste amongst the peasantry. 

During this time, William Langland wrote in his famous poem Piers Ploughman: 

‘Working men curse the king and all his parliament…that makes such laws to keep the labourer down.’ 

3. The Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453)

The Hundred Years’ War broke out in 1337 when Edward III began to press his claim on the French throne. Peasants in the south became increasingly involved in the war as the closest settlements to the French coast, with their towns attacked and their boats repossessed for use in the English navy.

From 1338-9, the English Channel naval campaign saw a series of raids on English towns, ships, and islands by the French navy, private raiders and even pirates.

Villages were burnt to the ground, with Portsmouth and Southhampton seeing significant damage, and areas of Essex and Kent also attacked. Many were killed or captured as slaves, often being left to the mercy of their attackers by the inefficient response of the government. 

Jean Froissart described one such raid in his Chronicles:

‘The French landed in Sussex near the borders of Kent, in a fairly large town of fisherman and sailors called Rye. They pillaged and plundered it and burnt it completely. Then they returned to their ships and went down the Channel to the coast of Hampshire’

Further, as the paid professional armies heavily featured the peasantry, the working class became increasingly politicised during the war. Many were trained to use longbows or had relatives who left to fight, and the constant taxation to fund the war effort left many resentful. Further dissatisfaction with their government ensued, particularly in the south-east whose shores had seen much destruction.

4. The poll tax

Despite initial successes, by the 1370s England was suffering huge losses in the Hundred Years’ War, with the country’s financial situation in dire straits. Garrisons stationed in France costed an exorbitant amount to maintain each year, while disruptions in the wool trade only exacerbated this.

In 1377, a new poll tax was introduced at the request of John of Gaunt. The tax demanded payment from 60% of the country’s population, a far higher amount than previous taxes, and stipulated that every lay person over the age of 14 years had to pay a groat (4d) to the Crown.

A second poll tax was raised in 1379, by the new king Richard II who was just 12 years old, followed by a third in 1381 as the war worsened.

This final poll tax was triple the first at 12d per person over the age of 15, and many evaded it by refusing to register. Parliament duly established a team of interrogators to patrol the villages in the south east where dissent was highest, with the aim of uncovering those who refused to pay.

5. Growing dissent in both rural and urban communities

In the years leading up to the rising, widespread protest against the government was already occurring in both rural and urban centres. Particularly in the southern counties of Kent, Essex and Sussex, general dissent was surfacing surrounding the practice of serfdom.

Medieval illustration of serfs harvesting wheat with reaping-hooks in Queen Mary’s Psalter (Image credit: Public domain)

Influenced by the preaching of John Ball, the ‘crack-brained priest of Kent’ as Froissart described him, much of the peasantry in the area began to acknowledge the unjust nature of their servitude and the unnaturalness of nobility. Ball would reportedly wait in the churchyards after Mass to preach to the villagers, famously asking:

‘When Adam delved and Eve span, who then was the gentleman?’

He encouraged people to take their qualms directly to the king, with word of the dissent soon reaching London. Conditions in the city were no better, with the expansion of the royal legal system enraging residents and John of Gaunt a particularly hated figure. London soon sent word back to the neighbouring counties expressing their support in the insurrection.

The catalyst at last came in Essex on 30 May 1381, when John Hampden went to collect Fobbing’s unpaid poll tax, and was met with violence.

Beaten down by years of servitude and government incompetency, the final poll tax and the harassment of their communities that followed was enough to push the peasantry of England into revolt.

With the south already poised for London, a mob of 60,000 headed for the capital, where just south of Greenwich John Ball reportedly addressed them:

‘I exhort you to consider that now the time is come, appointed to us by God, in which ye may (if ye will) cast off the yoke of bondage, and recover liberty.’

Though the revolt did not achieve its immediate aims, it is widely considered the first of a long line of protests by the English working class to demand equality and fair payment.

In its 1,000-year history, there have, of course, been other stories of escape from the famous walls. Here are five more daring decampments.

1. Roger Mortimer, 1^st Earl of March, escaped 1322

Born at Wigmore Castle in 1287, Mortimer is one of the Tower’s more controversial figures.

As a young man he caught Edward I’s eye for his prowess in battle and became a firm friend of the future Edward II.

After the latter ascended the throne, however, Mortimer developed frustrations at the young king’s military ineptitude and tendency to promote undeserving favourites, such as Hugh le Despenser.

This set him on the path to rebellion.

15th-century manuscript illustration showing Roger Mortimer with Isabella of France, Edward II’s queen (Credit: Public Domain)

Though initially successful, Mortimer surrendered, outnumbered, to the king at Shrewsbury in 1322. He was stripped of his lands and brought to the Tower.

When his initial death sentence was commuted to life imprisonment, Mortimer continued to plan insurrections using his influence with his gaolers and those outside. His letters eventually fell into royal hands and his original death sentence was reissued for August 1323.

Informed of his sentence by Queen Isabella – with whom he had engaged in an affair – Mortimer used the feast day of St Peter ad Vincula on 1 August to his advantage with the continued aid of his gaolers.

The constable’s deputy added sleeping drugs to the refreshments as the constable and the gaolers joined the celebrations in the great hall.

An inside man brought a concealed crowbar to Mortimer’s cell, along with a pair of rope ladders.

After creating a gap, Mortimer and his cellmate crept into the adjoining kitchens and, aided by the cook, made their way up an unused chimney to a ladder placed over the side of the inner ward.

Using a second ladder, they escaped the outer wall, reached a boat waiting to take them to Greenwich, and sped away into the night.

Sadly for Mortimer, his time in the Tower was far from over.

After successfully ensuring the abdication of Edward II in 1327, Mortimer acted as regent to the teenage Edward III.

After three years, however, the young king rose up against the man implicated in the suspicious death of his father and sent him back to the Tower.

The Tyburn Tree, at the present day location of Marble Arch (Credit: Public Domain)

Mortimer was an early victim of the ‘Tyburn Tree’. Dubbed the ‘greatest traitor’, he had, in the words of his son, Geoffrey, turned from honourable knight to ‘king of folly’.

2. Robert Hauley and John Shakell, escaped 1378

Within a year of Richard II’s coronation, Hundred-Year-War veterans John Shakell and Robert Hauley spent time in the Tower.

Hauley had captured the Aragonese noble, the Count of Denia, during the Battle of Nájera in 1367. Denia’s request to return home to raise his ransom was accepted in return for a hostage.

Denia died en route home, but Hauley and Shakel refused John of Gaunt’s furious order to release the hostage, the captivity of whom was regarded as a political and diplomatic embarrassment, being the Count’s son and thus of the Royal Blood of Aragon.

All that is known of how the pair escape the Tower is that it was through violent means.

With the alarm raised, the constable, assisted by some fifty men of the garrison, chased the absconding pair up Tower Hill to where they sought sanctuary, in Westminster Abbey.

The escapees interrupted a mass in honour of the festival of St Taurinus and the ensuing mob followed them inside, recapturing Shakell and hacking to death Hauley as he circled the choir.

The constable and his confederates – excluding the boy king Richard II, his mother and his uncle John of Gaunt – were later excommunicated for desecrating the holy site.

In memory of his apparent martyrdom, Hauley was interred in the south transept with a long brass effigy marking his place of rest. Shakell reached a compromise with Denia’s son, and was eventually buried close to Hauley.

3. Father John Gerard and John Arden, escaped 1597

Grandson of an early Lutheran purged at Smithfield in 1540, and son of a Lancashire Catholic knight kept in the Tower for his own conspiring, John Gerard had experienced many London gaols before joining the Jesuit mission in 1588.

After several narrow escapes, the betrayal of a servant in 1594 saw him moved to the Westminster home of the notorious catholic pursuivant Richard Topcliffe and later the Salt Tower at the Tower of London.

John Gerard wrote an autobiography including his experiences of torture in the tower (Credit: Public Domain).

Tortured incessantly, his wrists becoming so swollen he was unable to feed or dress himself, Gerard struck up a friendship with his gaoler, Bonner.

Once feeling in his hands returned, he convinced Bonner to make contact with his friends at the nearby Clink Prison, in addition to receiving a large collection of oranges, the juice of which he kept in a special container.

After obtaining some paper to wrap a present of a rosary for his friends, Gerard wrote a short invisible note using the orange juice and a toothpick.

While his friends outside the Tower put plans in place for an escape, Gerard used mime to make contact with fellow prisoner, the Northamptonshire recusant John Arden, who was being held in the Cradle Tower on the riverside wall of the outer ward.

After Gerard was granted permission to pay regular visits to Arden’s cell, Arden’s wife smuggled a length of cord to them.

2012 map of the Tower of London, showing the Salt Tower where Gerard was held at number 22. The Cradle Tower, where Arden was held and where the two men escaped from, is number 33. (Credit: Thomas Römer/CC).

On 3 October 1597, the pair tried for the first time.

Bonner – unaware of their intentions – escorted Gerard to the Cradle Tower and locked them in to celebrate mass, following which they made their way on to the roof around midnight.

The escapees met with boat problems on their first attempt but the following night they had better luck.

The boat moored, Gerard tossed the smuggled cord over the moat with the aid of a small iron ball, which his friend tied to a heavy rope. In turn, Gerard pulled the rope over the moat and attached it to a cannon on the roof.

The rope threatened to give way under the extra weight when Gerard followed Arden down. However, by sheer determination, they struggled their way to freedom.

In a touching epilogue to the story, Gerard wrote to the new lieutenant clearing Bonner of blame, as well as the Privy Council concerning the lieutenant.

A final letter he sent to Bonner himself, warning him not to show for work that day. He accepted Gerard’s offer of 200 florins annuity and became a Catholic.

4. John, 1^st Earl Middleton, escaped 1651

Former Scottish Parliamentarian and now royalist lieutenant general John Middleton carried out what must surely be regarded as the strangest escape ever made from the Tower.

Portrait of John Middleton, 1st Earl of Middleton (Credit: Public Domain).

Middleton was brought to the Tower in the aftermath of the future Charles II’s defeat at Worcester in 1651, and kept under the security of ‘three lockes’.

Middleton later revealed that he was awoken one night by the ghost of his late friend, Laird Boccani, who predicted that he would escape within three days.

Inspired, perhaps, by the antics of the Irish royalist Daniel O’Neill a decade earlier, Middleton took the prediction to heart.

He successfully walked out of the Tower precisely three days later after fooling the guards by dressing up in women’s clothing.

5. George Kelly, escaped 1736

Educated at Trinity before becoming a deacon and fleeing to Paris, the intelligent young future Jacobite George Kelly became secretary to Francis Atterbury, the Bishop of Rochester, and later party to the Atterbury Plot against George I in 1722.

When Atterbury and Kelly secretly returned to London in 1720, word of their arrival leaked. On being detained, Kelly drew a sword on the officer and, with his free hand, burnt any incriminating documents.

Released on bail, his continuous plotting saw him relocated to the Beauchamp Tower. After two years in the Tower, he protested that the harsh conditions were harming his health and was moved to Number 8 Tower Green.

In 1730 he requested escorted trips to Hampstead for better air. Aided by a medical report, in 1736 he penned a further letter about his asthma and was granted five hours a day to wander the city, where he purchased a horseman’s coat from one of the capital’s retail outlets.

At around 2 p.m. on 24 October, Kelly left for a regular jaunt carrying the recently collected coat over his arm.

Returning after dark he informed his warder that he planned to visit the son of another warder.

The unsuspecting guard wished him good night, oblivious as the red-coated Kelly turned and departed the Tower unchallenged.

In an act reminiscent of Gerard, after boarding a ship to Calais, he penned a series of letters apologising for his escape, as well as requesting his books become the property of his friend.

In 1745 he joined the Jacobite rebellion and later fled to France to become Bonnie Prince Charlie’s secretary.

John Paul Davis is the international bestselling author of 10 thriller novels and three historical biographies. A Hidden History of the Tower of London is his first book for Pen & Sword.

When Gilbert died in December 1295, his 4-year-old son Gilbert the younger became heir to his vast landholdings in England, Wales and Ireland. His youngest daughter Elizabeth was only a few weeks old. Earl Gilbert also left his daughters Eleanor, aged three, and Margaret, about 18 months. When they grew up, the three Clare sisters were married to a total of 7 men, 4 of whom were involved in intense and perhaps sexual relationships with their uncle Edward II.

All three sisters were imprisoned and had their lands and goods confiscated either by Edward II or his wife, Queen Isabella.

First marriages

Portrait in Westminster Abbey, thought to be of Edward I, grandfather to the Clare sisters (CC).

Edward I arranged Eleanor’s marriage in May 1306 to the young nobleman Hugh Despenser, grandson of the late earl of Warwick. The following year, the old king died and his 23-year-old son, the Clare sisters’ uncle, succeeded as Edward II.

The new king was involved in a passionate relationship with the Gascon nobleman Piers Gaveston, and arranged Gaveston’s marriage to his niece Margaret de Clare in November 1307.In 1308, the youngest sister, Elizabeth, married the earl of Ulster’s son and heir John de Burgh, and moved to Ireland in 1309, when she was 14.

She was widowed in 1313 when her son William de Burgh, later earl of Ulster, was a few months old.

‘Edward II and his Favourite, Piers Gaveston’ by Marcus Stone, 1872 (Credit: Kunst für Alle)

In June 1312, Piers Gaveston was killed by some of the English barons who were disgruntled at Edward II’s infatuation with him, and Margaret was also left a teenage widow with a young child. Eleanor’s first marriage lasted far longer than her sisters’; she was married to Hugh Despenser for just over 20 years and had at least 10 children with him.

A change of fortunes

When their elder brother Gilbert, earl of Gloucester, was killed at the battle of Bannockburn in June 1314, his sisters became his joint heirs.

Gilbert had been the second richest nobleman in the country, and one-third of his vast estate made the sisters wealthy landowners.

A depiction of the Battle of Bannockburn from a 1440s manuscript of Walter Bower’s Scotichronicon (Credit: Corpus Christi College, Cambridge).

Edward II needed to arrange the marriages of his two widowed nieces to men he trusted. In April 1317, Margaret and Elizabeth wed Sir Hugh Audley and Sir Roger Damory, the king’s current court favourites – perhaps his lovers.

Hugh Despenser used his appointment as the king’s chamberlain in 1318 as a platform for great influence and ousted his brothers-in-law Audley and Damory from the king’s affections.

He and Edward began to spend much time together, and the king grew dependent on the nephew-in-law whom he had never much liked or trusted before.

Despenser became Edward II’s last and great ‘favourite’, and from 1319 until his execution in November 1326 was the real ruler of England.

Edward II shown receiving the English crown in a contemporary illustration (Credit: British Library).

Margaret and Elizabeth de Clare’s husbands Hugh Audley and Roger Damory joined an unsuccessful baronial rebellion against the king and Despenser in 1321/22; Audley was imprisoned and Damory killed fighting against the royal army.

Edward II sent his niece Margaret to captivity in Sempringham Priory, Lincolnshire. Although he set Elizabeth free after a few months’ incarceration at Barking Abbey in Essex, he menaced her and allowed his beloved Despenser to seize some of her lands.

She dictated a document in May 1326, protesting against the treatment meted out to her by her uncle and brother-in-law.

The king’s new favourite

While her younger sisters languished in disgrace, Eleanor de Clare remained very high in the king’s favour, to the point where one continental chronicler stated that they were lovers and that she was pregnant by him in 1326.

Edward’s extant accounts of 1324/26 give some credence to this rumour. He was certainly extraordinarily close to both Eleanor and her husband, and an English chronicler stated that Edward treated Eleanor as his queen while his real queen, Isabella of France, was overseas in 1325/26.

Despenser was permitted to extort money and lands from numerous people, and even convinced the king to treat Queen Isabella, previously her husband’s loyal supporter, as his enemy.

The execution of Hugh le Despenser the Younger, from a manuscript of Jean Froissart (Credit: Public domain).

Isabella responded by promising to destroy Despenser and formed an alliance with Edward II’s baronial enemies on the continent. They invaded England and executed Hugh Despenser.

In early 1327, the king was forced to abdicate his throne to his and Isabella’s 14-year-old son, Edward III.

Under Edward III

Isabella of France, pictured third from left with her family including Philip IV of France (Credit: Bibliotheque Nationale).

It was now the widowed Eleanor’s turn to be imprisoned; she remained in the Tower of London for 15 months, while Margaret was freed from Sempringham Priory and Elizabeth was restored to her lands.

A few months after Eleanor was released, she was abducted and forcibly married to her second husband William la Zouche.

Queen Isabella, wielding power in the name of her teenage son, the king, seized the opportunity to deprive Eleanor of her lands and granted them to herself and her daughter-in-law, Edward III’s queen Philippa of Hainault.

Edward III by William Bruges, c. 1430 (Credit: British Library).

Eleanor was imprisoned for a second time. It surely came as a relief to her when her cousin Edward III overthrew his mother in October 1330 and began ruling his own kingdom, doing his best to restore normality after the chaos of the previous few years.

After 1330, the lives of the Clare sisters were far less dramatic than they had been during their uncle’s turbulent reign.

Eleanor died in 1337 and Margaret in 1342. Having lost three husbands by the age of 26, Elizabeth lived the last 4 decades of her life as a widow; she outlived her sisters by many years and died at the age of 65 in 1360.

Elizabeth founded a college at the University of Cambridge, named Clare after her family, in 1338.

Kathryn Warner holds a BA and an MA with Distinction in medieval history and literature from the University of Manchester, and is the author of biographies about Edward II and his queen Isabella. Her latest book, Edward II’s Nieces, is published by Pen & Sword.

He suffered the traitor’s death in Hereford on 24 November 1326 on the orders of the queen-consort of England, Isabella of France.

Rising high

Hugh was a nobleman, born in the late 1280s; his maternal grandfather William Beauchamp was Earl of Warwick, his paternal grandmother Aline Basset was Countess of Norfolk and his grandfather Hugh Despenser (d. 1265) was Justiciar of England.

Hugh the Younger’s father, Hugh the Elder, displayed undying loyalty to Edward I and his son Edward II for four decades. This – combined with his talents as a diplomat and royal counsellor – raised his son high.

In 1306 Edward I decided that Hugh the Younger made a suitable husband for his eldest granddaughter Eleanor de Clare (b. 1292). For his son’s marriage he paid Hugh the Elder £2,000 and attended the young couple’s wedding on 26 May 1306 – four days after Hugh the Younger was knighted.

Enter Edward II

Edward I died on 7 July 1307 and Hugh the Younger’s 23-year-old uncle-in-law succeeded his father as King Edward II.

The young king was a very different man to his formidable father and had little capacity to fill the role he had been born into. His reign of just under twenty years would prove extraordinarily dramatic and turbulent.

Though he was a member of the royal family by marriage, Hugh Despenser the Younger had no lands and no influence whatsoever; he spent the first half of Edward’s reign in the political wilderness.

For years Edward II was involved in an intense relationship with Piers Gaveston, a young nobleman of Béarn whom Edward made Earl of Cornwall and brought into the royal family by marriage to his niece Margaret, younger sister of Hugh Despenser’s wife Eleanor.

Gaveston was killed by a group of Edward II’s disgruntled barons in June 1312, sick of the king’s endless favouritism towards him. Two years later Edward lost the Battle of Bannockburn to Robert Bruce, King of Scotland.

A fifteenth century depiction of the Battle of Bannockburn. Here you can see the Scottish infantry wielding their long spears.

As though this were not humiliating enough, Edward’s nephew Gilbert de Clare, Earl of Gloucester, was killed at the battle.

Gloucester had no children and his heirs were his three sisters, including Eleanor Despenser. One-third of the vast Gloucester inheritance passed to Hugh Despenser; this made him rich, and in 1318 he was appointed royal chamberlain, an important role which involved controlling access to the king, by parliament.

Favourite to fugitive

Edward had long been indifferent to Hugh and perhaps disliked him, but Hugh used his new proximity to the monarch to work his way into the king’s affections.

Edward seemingly became as infatuated with him as he had been with Gaveston, and their association came to the attention of chroniclers, who commented that Edward did whatever Hugh wanted.

Hugh began to dominate the English government and foreign policy, though was never elected to do so.

In 1321 a group of English barons – whom Edward II called the ‘Contrariants’ – sick of Hugh’s excessive influence, sacked and vandalised all Despenser’s lands and his father’s across England and Wales and forced both men into exile in August 1321. Hugh the Younger became a pirate in the English Channel and made a fortune.

King in all but name

In early 1322 Edward II recalled Hugh and his father, executed or imprisoned the Contrariants, and gave many of their confiscated lands to Despenser. He was now the richest man in England.

Despenser’s influence continued to grow; his correspondence reveals that when Edward II went to war against his brother-in-law Charles IV of France in 1324, Despenser was the man in charge of directing the war.

Hugh abused his position to force many men and women, both nobles and commoners, to give him lands and money: he imprisoned people until they paid him large ransoms or handed over manors to him.

Numerous petitions, Hugh’s own correspondence, and entries in the chancery rolls reveal that Edward II was deeply involved in Hugh’s nefarious schemes against his own subjects.

Downfall

But Hugh made the error of alienating Isabella, Edward’s queen, who feared and loathed him and swore to bring him down. In early 1326 she allied with the remnant of the Contrariant faction, led by the baron Roger Mortimer of Wigmore, and she and the Contrariants invaded England with an army in September 1326.

Despenser’s father was captured and executed in Bristol, and on 24 November Despenser himself suffered death by hanging, drawing and quartering.

The execution of Hugh Despenser the Younger, from a manuscript of Jean Froissart.

His behaviour as royal favourite helped to bring about the first deposition of a king in English history: Edward II was so closely associated with Hugh Despenser that only a few weeks after Despenser’s execution, he was forced to abdicate his throne to his teenage son, Edward III.

14th century historian Kathryn Warner is a biographer of Edward II, Isabella of France, Hugh Despenser the Younger and Richard II. Her latest book, Hugh Despenser the Younger and Edward II, was published by Pen and Sword on 1 May 2019 and is available from all good book stores

The decisive English victory that followed has come to epitomise the power and deadliness of what is arguably England’s most famous weapon: the longbow.

Here are 10 facts about the Battle of Crécy.

1. It was preceded by the Battle of Sluys in 1340

Several years before the Battle of Crécy, King Edward’s invasion force encountered a French fleet off the coast of Sluys – then one of the best harbours in Europe.

The first battle of the Hundred Years War ensued, during which the accuracy and faster rate of fire of the English longbowmen overwhelmed their crossbow-wielding French and Genoese counterparts. The battle proved an overwhelming victory for the English and the French navy was all but destroyed. Following the victory, Edward duly landed his army near Flanders, but he soon returned to England.

The English victory at Sluys helped pave the way for Edward’s second invasion of France six years later and the Battle of Crécy.

The Battle of Sluys.

2. Edward’s knights did not fight on horseback at Crécy

Following early success in northern France, Edward and his campaigning army soon discovered that the French king, Philip VI, was leading a large force to confront him.

Realising that the impending battle would be a defensive one, Edward III dismounted his knights before the battle. On foot, these heavy infantrymen were placed alongside his longbowmen, providing Edward’s lightly-armoured archers ample protection if the French knights managed to reach them.

It soon proved a wise decision.

3. Edward ensured his archers were effectively deployed

Edward probably deployed his archers in a V-shaped formation called a harrow. This was a much more effective formation than placing them in a solid body as it allowed more men to see the advancing enemy and fire their shots with accuracy and without fear of hitting their own men.

4. The Genoese crossbowmen were famed for their prowess with the crossbow

Among Philip’s ranks were a large contingent of mercenary Genoese crossbowmen. Hailing from Genoa, these crossbowmen were renowned as the best in Europe.

Generals from far and wide had hired companies of these expert marksmen to compliment their own forces in conflicts as ranging as bloody internal Italian wars to crusades in the Holy Land. Philip VI’s French army was no different.

For him, his Genoese mercenaries were essential to the French battle plan at Crécy as they would cover the advance of his French knights.

5. The Genoese made a grave mistake before the battle

Although it was their most-feared weapon, the Genoese mercenaries were not armed solely with a crossbow. Along with a secondary melee weapon (usually a sword), they carried a large rectangular shield called a “pavise”. Given the reload speed of the crossbow, the pavise was a great asset.

This model demonstrates how a medieval crossbowman would draw his weapon behind a pavise shield. Credit: Julo / Commons

Yet at the Battle of Crécy, the Genoese had no such luxury, as they had left their pavises back in the French baggage train.

This made them very vulnerable and they soon suffered heavily from the English longbow fire. So fast was the rate of fire of the English longbows that, according to one source, it appeared to the French army as though it was snowing. Unable to counter the longbowmen’s barrage, the Genoese mercenaries retreated.

6. The French knights slaughtered their own men…

Upon seeing the Genoese crossbowmen retreating, the French knights became outraged. In their eyes, these crossbowmen were cowards. According to one source, upon seeing the Genoese falling back, King Philip VI ordered his knights to:

“Kill me those scoundrels, for they stop up our road without any reason.”

A merciless slaughter soon followed.

7. …but they soon became victims of a slaughter themselves

As the French knights took their turn at approaching the English lines, the reality of why the Genoese had retreated must have become clear.

Coming under a hail of archer fire from the English longbows, the plate-armoured horsemen soon suffered heavy casualties – so high that Crécy has become famous as the battle where the flower of the French nobility were cut down by the English longbows.

Those who made it to the English lines found themselves confronted not only by Henry’s dismounted knights, but also by infantry wielding vicious pole-arms – the ideal weapon for knocking a knight off his horse.

As for those French knights who were injured in the assault, they were later cut down by Cornish and Welsh footmen equipped with large knives. This greatly upset the rules of medieval chivalry which stated that a knight should be captured and ransomed, not killed. King Edward III thought likewise as after the battle he condemned the knight-killing.

8. Prince Edward earned his spurs

Although many French knights never even reached their opponents, those who engaged the English on the left side of their battle lines encountered the forces commanded by Edward III’s son. Also called Edward, the English king’s son earned the nickname “The Black Prince” for the black armour he possibly wore at Crécy.

Prince Edward and his contingent of knights found themselves hard-pressed by the opposing French, so much so that a knight was sent to his father to request aid. However, upon hearing that his son was still alive and wanting him to earn the glory of victory, the king famously replied:

“Let the boy win his spurs.”

The prince consequently won his fight.

9. A blind king went into the battle

King Philip was not the only king fighting with the French; there was also another monarch. His name was John, the King of Bohemia. King John was blind, but he nevertheless still commanded his retinue to take him into battle, desiring to land one blow with his sword.

His retinue duly obliged and guided him into battle. None survived.

10. Blind King John’s legacy lives on

The Black Prince pays his respects to the fallen King John of Bohemia following the Battle of Crécy.

Tradition has it that after the battle, Prince Edward saw the emblem of the dead King John and adopted it as his own. The emblem consisted of three white feathers in a crown, accompanied by the motto “Ich Dien” – “I serve”. It has remained the emblem of the Prince of Wales ever since.

The Hundred Years’ War

Agincourt was one of the key turning points of the Hundred Years’ War, a conflict that began in 1337 and ended in 1453. This extended period of near constant fighting between England and France began with the ascension of Edward III to the throne of England and, alongside it, his claim to the throne of France.

Popular, enigmatic and confident, Edward quartered (joined together) the coats of arms of England and France before sailing across the channel and embarking on a series of military campaigns through which he gained land. In 1346, his persistence paid off and he won a great victory at the Battle of Crécy.

These military successes cemented Edward’s popularity as king, but it was mostly due to a clever propaganda campaign that placed his French campaigns in a chivalric context.

Help from Arthur

From the 10th century, “chivalry” became recognised as an ethical code of conduct during war – a promotion of clemency between opposing sides. This idea was later taken up by the church with the emergence of patriotic religious figures such as Saint George and, later, by literature, most famously in the legend of King Arthur.

Before his victory at Crécy, Edward found himself having to persuade both the English parliament and the English public to support his ambitions across the Channel. Not only did he need parliament to okay another tax to fund his French campaigns but, with little overseas support, he would be forced to mainly draw his army from Englishmen.

To promote his cause, Edward turned to the Arthurian cult for help. Casting himself in the role of Arthur, the quintessentially English king, he was successfully able to portray warfare as a romantic ideal, akin to the glorious battles of Arthurian legend.

Twenty-first century forensic archaeology is helping to unravel the mythology surrounding King Arthur. Watch Now

In 1344, Edward began building a Round Table at Windsor, his would-be Camelot, and hosted a series of tournaments and pageants. Membership of his Round Table became highly sought after, something that brought with it military and chivalric prestige.

Edward’s propaganda campaign ultimately proved successful and two years later he claimed his famous victory at Crécy, defeating a much larger army led by French King Philip VI. The battle was reenacted at a tilt before an enraptured audience and it was during these festivities that the king and 12 knights wore a garter around their left knee and on their robes – the Order of the Garter was born.

An elitist fraternity, the Order espoused the brotherhood of the Round Table, though some high-born women did become members.

Propaganda vs. reality

The traditional customs of the chivalric code were not just espoused by Edward during his propaganda campaign, but also upheld by him during battle – at least according to chroniclers such as Jean Froissart, who described the events that took place following the capture of three French knights at the siege of Limoges in France.

Ironically, although common people were massacred during the assault on Limoges, the elite French knights appealed to Edward’s son, John of Gaunt, to be treated “according to the law of arms” and subsequently became prisoners of the English.

Prisoners were largely treated kindly and well. When the French king Jean Le Bon was captured by the English at the Battle of Poitiers, he spent the night dining in the royal tent, before eventually being taken to England, where he lived in relative luxury at the opulent Savoy Palace.

High net worth individuals were a lucrative commodity and many English knights made a fortune during war by capturing French nobility for extortionate ransoms. Edward’s closest comrade, Henry of Lancaster, became the wealthiest magnate in the country through the spoils of war.

The fall of chivalry

The reign of Edward III was the golden age of chivalry, a time when patriotism was high in England. After his death in 1377, the young Richard II inherited the English throne and war ceased to be a priority.

The concept of chivalry became immersed in court culture after Edward III’s death.

Chivalry instead became immersed in court culture, becoming more about pomp, romance and frivolity – qualities that did not lend itself to warfare.

Richard was eventually overthrown by his cousin Henry IV and the war in France became a success once again under his son Henry V. But by 1415, Henry V did not see fit to extend the traditional chivalric customs that had been demonstrated by his predecessors in France.

The Hundred Years’ War ultimately began with the rise of chivalry and closed with its fall. Chivalry may have enabled Edward III to lead his countrymen into France but, by the end of the Battle of Agincourt, Henry V had proved that chivalry no longer had a place in hard war.

What caused the conflict?

In the simplest terms, the war began because Richard, Duke of York, believed he had a better claim to the throne than the man sitting on it, Henry VI.

Ever since Henry II, the first Plantagenet, took power, kings struggled to keep a firm grip on the crown and not all of them succeeded. Edward II, for example, was ousted by his wife and replaced by his son Edward III.

Problems occurred in 1399 when Richard II was deposed by his cousin, Henry Bolingbroke who would go on to be the Henry IV. This created two competing lines of the family, both of which thought they had the rightful claim.

On the one hand were the descendants of Henry IV – known as the Lancastrians – and on the other the heirs of Richard II. In the 1450s, the leader of this family was Richard of York; his followers would come to be known as the Yorkists.

A dodgy king

However, all this dynastic arguing was something of a smokescreen. What really mattered were more practical issues and in particular the problematic reign of Henry VI.

A portrait of the ailing Henry VI whose inability to rule effectively due to his illness contributed to the outbreak of the Wars of the Roses.

Thanks to the military successes of his father, Henry V, England held vast swathes of France and Henry VI was the only King of England to be crowned King of France and England. However, it was not a title he could hold onto for long and over the course of his reign he gradually lost almost all England’s possessions in France.

Finally, in 1453, defeat at the Battle of Castillon called an end to the Hundred Years War and left England with only Calais from all their French possessions.

The English nobility was incensed by the loss of power and French land, and factional tensions broke out. Mounting pressures on Henry led to a major breakdown in 1453. Historians believe he suffered from a condition known as catatonic schizophrenia which would see him lapse into catatonic states for long periods of time.

Battle for power

Henry’s weakness created two factions at court. One, led by the Duke of Gloucester and Richard, Duke of York, favoured a more aggressive policy in the war, while the other led by the Dukes of Suffolk and Somerset favoured peace. They were supported by the Queen Margaret of Anjou who was rumoured to be having an affair with Somerset.

With Henry in no fit state to rule, Richard was named Protector of the Realm, naming many of his close associates in important positions. However, on Christmas Day 1444 the king recovered, and he set about undoing York’s appointments. His fatal error was to exclude York and his faction, supported by the Earl of Warwick, from a council to be held in Leicester in May 1455.

The two sides met in the Battle of St Albans. It was only a small encounter, but it saw the death of the Duke of Somerset and several other Lancastrian noblemen. This created sons who were out for revenge and turned a dynastic struggle into an even more poisonous blood feud.

Even then there were chances to turn back. The Act of Accord in 1460 named Richard heir, but there was no turning back. Margaret – perhaps grieving for Somerset – was determined to get her revenge on Richard.

She would have it when he himself was killed in battle, but that only left his son Edward who was even more determined to get his revenge. The Wars of York and Lancaster had begun.