The battle culminated in a decisive victory for King Henry IV, including the death of ‘Hotspur’ Percy, the capture of the Earl of Douglas, and the collapse of Hotspur’s rebellion. The lessons learned would also go on to prove crucial at the Battle of Agincourt in 1415, one of England’s most important triumphs in the Hundred Years’ War.

Here we explore 10 facts about the battle – many of which feature in our documentary, The Battle of Shrewsbury, where Dan Jones teams-up with Professor Michael Livingston to discover how the battle not only changed the history of England – but put the future Henry V on his own path towards destiny.

1. Rebellion stemmed from the king’s failure to sufficiently reward the Percy family

The powerful Percy family from the north of England had supported the first Lancastrian king, King Henry IV – helping him seize power when he took the throne from Richard II in 1399. King Henry IV’s 16 year old son Henry, known as Hal, was invested as the new Prince of Wales. However the kingdom was still bitterly divided, and numerous plots to topple Henry IV were being concocted.

Head of the Percy family was Henry Percy, the first Earl of Northumberland. By 1399, he was almost 60, so his son, Henry ‘Hotspur’ Percy took the lead, quickly becoming acquainted with war, fighting in campaigns along with Edward III and Richard II.

Despite the Percy’s being lavished with money, titles, and land by the new king (and seen as peacekeepers in a new kingdom), they began to feel disgruntled as King Henry IV flexed his royal power. Disagreeing with the king’s governance, Hotspur began to think he might make a better king. In October 1402, Henry IV called parliament, during which he and Hotspur met. It is unclear what was discussed, but after this, Hotspur rode back north with rebellion in mind.

Hotspur had also been successfully campaigning against rebellious Welsh patriot Owain Glyndŵr, but had not received payment for his services. Subsequently, the Percys formed an alliance with Glyndŵr and others discontent with Henry’s rule, including Edward Mortimer, with the aim of conquering and dividing-up England.

2. Sir Henry ‘Hotspur’ Percy was named after his fiery temperament

With his fiery temper, energetic leadership, and swiftness in approach to battle, Henry had been nicknamed ‘Hotspur’. The Scots had also praised his incredible speed on his horse, and it was said he must have ‘hot spurs’ on his boots for his horse to run so fast. 

(As the Percy family also owned land in the area known as Northumberland Park and at Tottenham Marshes in London, Henry’s nickname ‘Hotspur’ helped inspire Tottenham Hotspur Football Club, as this land is also where the club played its first games. His name also inspired the team’s famous emblem of a fighting cock.)

3. Upon reaching Shrewsbury, Hotspur’s army had grown to around 5,000 men

Shrewsbury in Shropshire was a bustling transport hub and a centre for the wool trade from Wales – strategic to the royal cause, and a perfect place for the rebels to strike.

Hotspur travelled south to join other rebels and aimed to march on Shrewsbury, mustering a rebel army along his way, including the Cheshire archers. On 9 July 1403, his flag was raised in nearby Chester. Meanwhile, King Henry IV, having decided to extend an olive branch to the Percy family, gathered 1,000 men to march north to help the Percy’s with a routine summer of campaigning against the Scots. However, on 12 July, Henry arrived in Leicester and heard about Hotspur’s rebellion.

For the next 9 days, the three forces under Hotspur, Hal and Henry IV headed to Shrewsbury. When Hotspur arrived, he found Hal’s flag already raised, and the next day, Henry IV’s army appeared, taking Hotspur by surprise. The rebels retreated to the north, while the king’s forces (now numbering 7,000) also made camp, intending battle the next day.

4. The battle only began a few hours before dusk

Both King Henry IV and Hotspur were skilled military leaders, each with considerable support from nobles and soldiers. Both armies faced each other on 21 July 1403, and attempted to negotiate a peaceful compromise for many hours. When this failed, the battle commenced, with only a few daylight hours remaining.

The battle saw fierce fighting between the two sides, with both employing traditional medieval warfare tactics, including archery, cavalry charges, and hand-to-hand combat.

Plan of the battle

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons / 'Battles and Battlefields in England' / The British Library / Public Domain

5. The Battle was the first time that massed troops of archers faced each other using the longbow on English soil

The majority of both armies would have been archers. In the 14th century, archers had been the secret weapon of English armies fighting abroad, along with their super weapon of the longbow. This was now in the hands of both sides for the first time, and the battle highlighted its deadly effectiveness, with thousands of arrows in the air at one time.

6. Hotspur held the advantage of higher ground

At the battle’s start, Hotspur and the rebel forces held a slightly elevated position, meaning their arrows were more effective and they did not have to fight uphill. When a gap opened in the right side of the king’s flank, Hotspur seized the opportunity, prompting his men to charge downhill. This resulted in the two lines crashing into each other, descending into hand-to-hand combat.

However while this took place, Prince Hal saw an opening and demonstrated strategic acumen by employing ‘command and control’ tactics. He directed his section of the line to turn inward, attempting to encircle the approaching rebels.

In the melee, Hal was struck in the face by an arrow. Despite this potentially fatal injury, he remarkably pulled the arrow shaft out of his face and continued fighting. This pivotal moment showcased the resilience and leadership of the 16 year old heir to the throne, who, despite a near-fatal encounter, maintained his composure and continued to command his troops.

7. Hotspur was killed when he was shot in the face by an arrow after opening his visor

The key to the battle for the rebels remained the king. After initial success, including bringing down the king’s banner-man, Hotspur launched forwards alone, and was struck and killed. Word of Hotspur’s death quickly spread, abruptly concluding the battle as the rebels’ morale crumbled without their leader.

Death of Henry “Harry Hotspur” Percy, from a 1910 illustration by Richard Caton Woodville Jr.

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons / Richard Caton Woodville Jr. / Public Domain

8. Most rebels were killed during the rout

Casualty numbers were high on both sides, with an estimated 1,500 royalists and even more rebels, including prominent nobles and knights, losing their lives.

Whilst the initial battlefield clash caused significant casualties, the disorderly retreat of the rebels in the rout proved even more deadly. (The rout was the most dangerous part of any battle.) As they fled the battlefield attempting to avoid being cut down, the pursuing royalist forces engaged in a moving massacre, leaving no room for captives as there was no-one to sell them to or ask for a ransom – these men were traitors and rebels to the kingdom.

King Henry IV’s forces emerged victorious, successfully quashing the rebellion. To dispel rumours of Hotspur’s survival, his body was quartered, and various parts were displayed across the country, with his head was impaled on York’s north gate.

However, despite the apparent consolidation of Henry IV’s authority, the Battle of Shrewsbury did not completely eliminate opposition to his rule, and further challenges and conflicts persisted during his reign.

9. Hal, the future King Henry V, received innovative life-saving surgery

After the Battle of Shrewsbury, royal surgeon John Bradmore was entrusted with saving Prince Hal’s life by extracting the arrowhead lodged in his face.

Bradmore documented the entire operation, revealing that the wound was 6 inches deep. Although Hal had pulled out the arrow shaft during the battle, the arrowhead remained lodged in his face near his spine.

To extract the arrowhead, Bradmore devised ‘tents’ using elder rods wrapped in linen, soaked in a mixture of honey and rosewater (which served as an antiseptic to prevent infection). Bradmore began with a thin rod, gently easing it into the wound, progressively using wider rods to reopen the wound.

After several days, he employed a specially designed tool – essentially long smooth tongs with an internal screw mechanism – which he invented and sketched for the records. This tool gripped the arrowhead from the inside, allowing Bradmore to successfully extract it, and in doing so, saved Hal’s life.

10. Lessons from the battle were later deployed at The Battle of Agincourt

The Battle of Shrewsbury had a profound impact on Prince Hal, later known as King Henry V. The brutal lessons learned in this battle influenced his tactics in the Battle of Agincourt in 1415. Remembering the effectiveness of the longbow, Henry V brought a higher ratio of bowmen to infantry than any previous army. Additionally, he included a medical corps, recognising the importance of medicine based on his personal experience after Shrewsbury.

Henry’s experiences at Shrewsbury also shaped Henry’s personal approach to battle. At Shrewsbury, he had been a bold, risk-taker, and the fact this paid off and he survived a potentially fatal wound reinforced his belief in a divine purpose for his life. This spiritual conviction fuelled his sense of destiny to become king.

Without the lessons learned at the Battle of Shrewsbury, there might not have been a Henry V or subsequent victory at Agincourt – a triumph that helped establish England one of the strongest military powers in Europe.

Since her execution in 1431, she has come to serve as a figurehead for a litany of ideals – from French nationalism to feminism, to the simple belief that anyone, no matter how humble, can achieve great things if accompanied by belief.

From lowly origins

At the time of Joan of Arc’s birth, France had been wracked by 90 years of conflict and was almost at a point of desperation in the aptly-named Hundred Years War. Crushingly defeated at the Battle of Agincourt in 1415, ascendancy was gained by the English over France in the coming years.

So complete was their victory that in 1420 the French heir Charles of Valois was disinherited and replaced by the English warrior-king Henry V, and for a time it seemed that France was finished. The fortunes of the war began to turn however when Henry died just a year later.

Henry V’s reign saw English ascendancy in the Hundred Years’ War. Credit: National Portrait Gallery

As Henry’s son, the future Henry VI, was still an infant, suddenly the beleaguered French were given an opportunity to take back power – if given the inspiration to do so. Sensationally, this would come in the form of an illiterate peasant girl.

Joan’s family, particularly her mother, were deeply pious and this strong foundational belief in Catholicism was imparted to their daughter. Joan had also seen her fair share of conflict during the war, including on one occasion when her village was burnt in a raid, and though she lived in an area controlled by England’s Burgundian allies, her family were firmly in support of the French crown.

At the age of 13, whilst standing in her father’s garden, she suddenly began experiencing visions of Saint Michael, Saint Catherine, and Saint Margaret. They informed her that it was her destiny to help the Dauphin reclaim his throne and expel the English from France.

On God’s mission

Deciding that she had been sent a mission of overwhelming importance by God, Joan persuaded the local court to annul her arranged marriage in 1428, and made her way to Vaucouleurs – a local stronghold that housed supporters loyal to Charles of Valois, the uncrowned King of France.

She attempted to petition the garrison commander Robert de Baudricourt to provide her an armed escort to the royal court at Chinon, yet was sarcastically turned away. Returning months later, she convinced two of Baudricourt’s soldiers to permit her a second audience, and whilst there correctly predicted a military reversal at the Battle of Rouvray – before news had even reached Vaucouleurs.

Learn more about the woman who took upon herself the mission to save France in this short film, Warrior Women: Joan of Arc. Watch Now

Now convinced of her divine gift, Baudricourt allowed her passage to Chinon, the site of Charles’ palace. The journey would be all but safe however, and as a precaution she cropped her hair and dressed in boys clothes, disguising herself as a male soldier.

Saviour of France

Unsurprisingly, Charles was sceptical of the 17-year old girl that arrived unannounced at his court. Joan is supposed to have said something to him that only a messenger from God could have known however, and won him over as she had Baudricourt.

She later refused to confess what she told him, yet Charles was impressed enough to admit the teenage girl into his war councils, where she stood alongside the most powerful and venerable men in the kingdom.

Joan promised Charles that she would see him crowned in the city of Reims like his forebears, though first the English siege of Orléans would have to be lifted. Despite the vociferous protests of his other councillors, Charles gave Joan command of an army in March 1429, and dressed in white armour and on a white horse, she led them to relieve the city.

Reims Cathedral was the historic site of the crowning of France’s kings. Credit: Wikimedia Commons

A number of assaults on the besiegers followed, driving them away from the city and across the Loire river. After months under siege, Orléans was freed in just 9 days, and when Joan entered the city she was met with jubilation. This miraculous result proved to many Joan’s divine gifts, and she joined Charles on campaign as town after town were liberated from the English.

Whether or not she was truly led by divine visions, Joan’s devout faith in her calling often pushed her to take risks in battle no professional soldier would, and her presence in the war effort had a vital impact on the morale of the French. To the English however, she appeared to be an agent of the Devil.

A change in fortune

In July 1429, Charles was crowned as Charles VII in Reims Cathedral. At this moment of triumph however, Joan’s fortunes began to turn as a number of military blunders soon followed, largely supposed to be the fault of French Grand Chamberlain Georges de La Trémoille.

At the end of a brief truce between France and England in 1430, Joan was ordered to defend the town of Compiégne in northern France, under siege by English and Burgundian forces. On 23 May, whilst moving to attack a camp of Burgundians, Joan’s party was ambushed and she was pulled from her horse by an archer. Soon imprisoned at Beaurevoir Castle, she made a number of escape attempts including on one occasion jumping 70ft from her prison tower, less she be turned over to her sworn enemies – the English.

These attempts were in vain however, and soon she was moved to Rouen Castle and indeed placed into the custody of the English, who had purchased her capture for 10,000 livres. A number of rescue missions by the French Armagnac faction failed, and despite Charles VII’s vow to ‘exact vengeance’ on Burgundian troops and both ‘the English and women of England’, Joan would not escape her captors.

Trial and execution

In 1431, Joan was put on trial for a host of crimes from heresy to cross-dressing, the latter being a supposed sign of devil-worship. Throughout many days of questioning she presented herself with seemingly God-given calm and confidence, stating:

“Everything I have done I have done at the instruction of my voices”

On 24 May she was taken to the scaffold and told she would die immediately unless she denied her claims of divine guidance and gave up wearing men’s attire. She signed the warrant, yet 4 days later recanted and again adopted men’s clothing.

A number of reports give reason for this, chief of which stated that her adoption of men’s attire (which she tied firmly to herself with rope) prevented her from being raped by her guards, while another capitulated that the guards forced her to wear them by taking away the women’s clothing she had been provided.

Whether of her own accord or through conspiracy, it was this simple act that branded Joan of Arc a witch and had her sentenced to death for ‘relapsing into heresy’.

Captured by Burgundian forces, Joan was burned on charges of heresy in 1431. Credit: State Hermitage Museum

An enduring legacy

On 30 May 1431 she was burnt at the stake at the Old Marketplace in Rouen at the age of just 19. In death and martyrdom however, Joan would prove to be just as powerful. A Christ-like symbol of sacrifice and purity, she continued to inspire Frenchmen over the following decades as they finally expelled the English and ended the war in 1453.

Following his victory Charles had Joan’s name cleared of heresy, and centuries later Napoleon would call on her to become the national symbol of France. She was officially canonised in 1920 as a patron saint, and remains a source of inspiration worldwide for her courage, perseverance, and unquenchable vision.

Although he had an evident interest in public affairs and a desire to try and reconcile his warring subordinates, his inability to prevent powerful individuals influencing him – each with their own agendas – caused him to make poor decisions that helped plunge his kingdom into anarchy.

Here are 15 facts about Henry VI, the last Lancastrian monarch.

1. He was the only son of Henry V

Following his heroic victory at Agincourt on 25 October 1415 King Henry V subsequently married Catherine of Valois, daughter of the French king Charles VI, in 1420.

A year later, on 6 December 1421, Catherine gave birth to a son, named after his father.

Henry V’s finest hour came at the Battle of Agincourt on 25 October 1415. Dan discusses the major English victory in the Hundred Years’ War with Tobias Capwell, Curator of Arms and Armour at The Wallace Collection. Listen Now

2. He was only nine months old when his father died

Henry V died on 31 August 1422, making his infant son the youngest person to ever succeed to the English throne.

For the next 15 years a regency council ruled for the young Henry. It was dominated by Henry V’s two brothers: John, Duke of Bedford (who oversaw the ongoing war in France) and Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester (who acted as Lord Protector and oversaw affairs at home).

Both Bedford and Gloucester proved capable leaders and administrators during the regency period.

3. During the early years of the regency, English power in France reached its zenith

Bedford’s victory at Verneuil on 14 August 1424 marked the high-tide of English power in France – described by English contemporaries as a second Agincourt.

It was during the regency of Henry VI that Joan of Arc rose to prominence.Watch Now

4. He was the only English king to be also crowned King of France

It occurred because of the Treaty of Troyes, agreed between Henry V and Charles VI in 1420: Henry would marry Charles’ daughter Catherine and both he and his sons would inherit the French throne following Charles’ death.

Thus, when Charles died in 1422 (only two months after Henry V), the infant Henry became the (disputed) successor to the French throne.

He was crowned King Henry VI of England at Westminster Abbey on 6 November 1429; two years later on 16 December 1431 he was also crowned King Henry II of France at Notre Dam in Paris.

5. He was controlled by powerful figures

The most prominent of these figures was Edmund Beaufort, 2^nd Duke of Somerset, and Margaret of Anjou, Henry’s wife. Many suspect Margaret and Edmund were lovers.

6. His reign saw the collapse of almost all English holdings in France

The Royal Council’s choice to appoint Beaufort as commander of the English forces in France proved highly unpopular – especially by the previous commander Richard, Duke of York, who had expected to have his posting renewed.

Somerset’s tenure was plagued by countless military failures and concessions: he surrendered Maine, then lost control of Normandy and finally Gascony following the disastrous Battle of Castillon (17 July 1453).

The Battle of Castillon.

7. He suffered a severe mental breakdown in August 1453…

News of the decisive English defeat at Castillon proved the final straw for Henry, who consequently suffered from a mental breakdown of some kind. For over a year he proved completely unresponsive to anything.

To avert the crisis, the ambitious Richard Duke of York was recalled to London and made Lord Protector – effectively regent.

8. …but he recovered a year later

Henry VI recovered from his insanity at around Christmas time in 1454. Edmund Clere wrote to his cousin John Paston to celebrate the news:

“Blessed be God, the King is well amended, and hath been since Christmas Day; and on Saint John’s Day [27th December] commanded his almoner to ride to Canterbury with his offering, and commanded the secretary to offer to Saint Edward.”

In hindsight however, many describe Henry’s recovery as a national disaster.

9. He was captured at the opening battle of the Wars of the Roses

Henry’s decisions following his recovery would help plunge his country into civil war: the Wars of the Roses. Having alienated the Duke of York and his followers, enmity between the Yorkists and the Lancastrians reached breaking point and hostilities erupted.

The opening engagement at St Albans on 22 May 1455 proved ill-fated for Henry and his army. York and his supporters gained a decisive victory, the Dukes of Somerset and Clifford – two of Henry’s most prominent allies – were killed in the fighting and a wounded Henry was captured.

10. He made a valiant attempt to reconcile his warring nobles

On 25 March 1458 Henry attempted to bring an end to the tumultuous civil war by organising a reconciliation event between prominent Yorkists and Lancastrians at St Paul’s Cathedral.

Although Henry’s attempt at reconciliation was genuine and initially successful, the peace gained at the ‘Loveday’ was short-lived; hostilities broke out again soon after.

11. He was captured a second time

It followed the Lancastrian defeat to the forces of York’s son Edward at the Battle of Northampton on 10 July 1460.

12. Henry was temporarily restored to the English throne on 3 October 1470

The defection of ‘the Kingmaker’ Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick, to the Lancastrian cause in 1470 shifted the pendulum of power in English politics. Edward IV fled into exile and Henry was once again restored as king, albeit in name only – the real power lay with Warwick.

13. His only son died at the Battle of Tewkesbury

The murder of Prince Edward. One version of events states he was taken to Edward IV and executed after he remarked, “I came to recover my father’s heritage.”

On 4 May 1471 Edward and his Yorkists won a decisive victory against Queen Margaret and her Lancastrians at Tewkesbury.

What followed was a massacre, The fleeing force attempted to cross the river Severn and reach safety, but the Yorkists, in hot pursuit, cut down large swathes of them in a meadow by the riverbank – today known as ‘the Bloody Meadow.’

It was during this rout that Henry’s only son, Edward Duke of Westminster, was discovered by Edward IV’s brother the Duke of Clarence, and swiftly beheaded.

14. Henry met his end on 23 May 1471 in the Tower

Some say he died out of grief after he learned of the death of his son at Tewkesbury; others believe he was murdered on the orders of King Edward IV. Archaeological study of Henry’s skull suggests he suffered a violent end, adding further credence to the latter belief.

Likely in an attempt to blacken his name, the Tudor polymath Thomas Moore claimed Richard III personally carried out the murder.

15. He formed the historical basis for one of Shakespeare’s greatest plays

Shakespeare’s trilogy of plays, ‘Henry VI’, is set during the lifetime of Henry; the Lancastrian monarch is a central character:

“Would I were dead, if God’s good will were so; For what is in this world but grief and woe?”

It was first performed on 3 March 1592.

16. (Bonus) Henry VI is very similar to the monarch who succeeded Alexander the Great

The similarities between Henry VI and Philip Arrhidaeus III, the man who was crowned king in the aftermath of Alexander the Great’s death, are staggering. Both suffered from mental impairments that hindered their ability to rule effectively; both were easily controlled by more powerful, ambitious figures.

Both oversaw the descent of their kingdom from its zenith into a bloody civil war; both were later murdered; both were the last of their royal dynasties to assume the kingship.

Philip III as pharaoh on a relief in Karnak

The basis of the drawn-out series of wars originated from disputed claims to the French throne from the royal families of England’s House of Plantagenet and its rival, the French royal House of Valois.

The effects of the war, which involved 5 generations of kings, not only brought about innovations in military weaponry but also created stronger national identities for both England and France with their distinctive languages and culture. At the end of the war, England became known as a nation-state and with English, rather than French, defining its sovereign language spoken by both the court and aristocracy.

To date, the Hundred Years’ War is the longest military conflict in Europe. Here are 10 key figures from the lengthy conflict.

1. Philip VI of France (1293 – 1350)

Known as the ‘Fortunate’, Philip VI was the first king of France from the House of Valois. His position as king came about due to the consequences of a succession dispute after Charles IV of France died in 1328.

Instead of Charles’ nephew, England’s King Edward III, being made king of France, the throne went to Charles’ paternal cousin Philip. The appointment caused a series of disagreements that evolved into the beginning of the Hundred Years’ War.

2. Edward III of England (1312 – 1377)

Associated with what became known as the Edwardian War – one of the three phases of dynastic conflict between France and England during the 100 Years War – Edward transformed England from being a vassal of French kings and nobles into a military power that led to English victories against the French at Crecy and Poitiers.

The Battle of Crecy on 26 August 1346 saw the English army facing King Philip VI’s forces and winning due to the superiority of English longbowmen against Philip’s crossbowmen.

3. Edward of Woodstock, the Black Prince (1330 – 1376)

The eldest son of King Edward III of England, the Black Prince was one of the most successful military commanders during the conflicts of the Hundred Years’ War. As the eldest son of King Edward III, he was heir apparent to the English throne.

The Black Prince took part in King Edward’s expedition to Calais during the Hundred Years’ War. After the English victory there, he negotiated the Treaty of Bretigny, which ratified the terms of agreement between King Edward III and King John II of France.

Full-page miniature of Edward of Woodstock, the Black Prince, of the Order of the Garter, c. 1440-50.

Image Credit: British Library / Public Domain

4. Sir James Audley (1318 – 1369)

James Audley was one of the first knights of the original Order of the Garter, the order of chivalry founded by Edward III of England in 1348. He fought at the Battle of Crecy (1346) and at the Battle of Poitiers (1356), two major victories for the English against French forces during the Hundred Years’ War.

It was at Poitiers that Audley was severely wounded and carried from the battle scene. Edward of Woodstock greatly admired Audley’s courage and rewarded him with an annuity of 600 marks. He later became governor of Aquitaine.

5. Charles V of France (1338 – 1380)

Known as the ‘philosopher king’, Charles V was the grandson of Philip VI. He was seen as the redeemer of France despite inheriting a sickly France crippled by war, plague and insurrection: he managed to turn the tide of the Hundred Years’ War and reinvigorated the cultural institutions of the kingdom.

By the end of his reign, Charles reconquered almost all the territories lost to England after humiliating defeats. Under his brilliant military campaigner, Bertrand du Guesclin, given the moniker the ‘Black Dog of Broceliande’, France defeated the English battle after battle.

Despite Charles’ successes as a military leader and reviving France on the brink of collapse, he was also hated for raising taxes which bled the people dry, even though such taxes stabilised the country.

A 14th-century depiction of the coronation of Charles V.

Image Credit: Gallica Digital Library / CC

6. Henry V of England (1386 – 1422)

Famous for his battle speech in Shakespeare’s play Henry V, the young king of England who died at just 35 is regarded as one of England’s greatest heroes.

Sometimes referred to as Henry of Monmouth, he is associated with the Battle of Agincourt (1415), where he trounced the French army led by Charles VI’s commander Constable Charles d’Albret in bloody hand-to-hand combat. It is a battle noted for the superiority of the English longbow against the French crossbow.

Months after the victory, Henry and Charles VI took part in protracted negotiations where eventually the Treaty of Troyes (1420) was signed between the two countries. Henry married Charles’ daughter Katherine of Valois, cementing what appeared to be a strong alliance between England and France. Tragically, Henry died two years later and was succeeded by his infant son Henry VI.

7. Charles VI of France (1368 – 1422)

One of the most troubled French kings, Charles, often nicknamed the Mad, suffered from psychosis and mental health issues and throughout his life alternated between madness and lucidity. He experienced an attack of delirium while on a military campaign against the English in 1392 and attacked his own men, killing a knight.

At one stage he suffered from ‘glass delusion’, believing he was made of glass. Charles is famously associated with the Battle of Agincourt against the triumphant Henry V of England, after which he was forced to sign the Treaty of Troyes which disinherited French royals in favour of England’s Henry V as King of France.

8. Anne of Burgundy (1404 – 1432)

Anne was the daughter of John the Fearless, a scion of the French royal family. Anne’s role in the Hundred Years’ War was a matrimonial alliance, meant to cement relations between England and France.

Her marriage to the English prince, John of Lancaster, 1st Duke of Bedford was made under the agreement of the Treaty of Amiens (1423) and was seen as vital to secure English success in France and with the Duke of Burgundy, who was Anne’s brother. Unlike the hostile relationships between English and French royals, Anne and John’s marriage was a happy one, although childless.

9. Joan of Arc (1412 – 1431)

Joan of Arc, a teenager who claimed to have holy visions, was allowed to lead the French armies against England. In 1429 Joan led the Dauphin’s forces to victory at Orleans, which led to him being crowned as King Charles VII of France and able to restore the French line.

Captured by France’s political enemy the Burgundians, Joan was sold to the English and tried as a witch. She was burned at the stake in 1431. She was recognised as a saint in 1920.

10. John Fitzalan, Earl of Arundel (1408 – 1435)

An English nobleman and military commander who fought during the latter period of the Hundred Years’ War, Arundel was noted for his bravery while fighting and recovering fortresses lost to the French, as well as suppressing local rebellions.

His promising military career came to a brutal end at the age of 27 when during the Battle of Gerbevoy in 1435 he was shot in the foot and captured by the enemy. After his leg was amputated, Arundel suffered a fatal infection of the wound and died shortly afterwards.

Richard’s reign was beset by problems of ruling in a minority at a time of great social upheaval – particularly caused by economic pressures of the Black Death. Richard was also a capricious king who made powerful enemies, and his appetite for revenge ended with him being deposed by his cousin, Henry Bolingbroke – who became Henry IV.

The descendants of Edward III and Philippa of Hainault.

However, Henry’s usurpation made the line of kingship more complex, with the Plantagenet family now in competing cadet branches of ‘Lancaster’ (descended from John of Gaunt) and ‘York’ (descended from Edmund, Duke of York as well as Lionel, Duke of Clarence). This complicated backdrop set the stage for dynastic conflict and open civil war amongst the English nobiity in the mid 15th century. Here are the 3 Lancastrian and 3 Yorkist kings in order.

Henry IV

As Richard II fell into tyranny through the 1390s, his exiled cousin Henry of Bolingbroke, son of the Duke of Lancaster, returned to England to claim the throne. The childless Richard was forced to abdicate, and Lancastrian rule began on 30 September 1399.

Henry was a famed knight, serving with the Teutonic Knights on crusade in Lithuania and undertaking a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. Henry faced continual opposition to his rule. In 1400, Owain Glyndŵr declared himself Prince of Wales and launched a prolonged rebellion.

The Earl of Northumberland became disaffected in 1402, and a plot was hatched to carve up the kingdom, replacing Henry with Edmund Mortimer, giving Wales to Glyndŵr, and the north to Northumberland.

The Battle of Shrewsbury on 21 July 1403 brought an end to the threat, but Henry struggled to find security. From 1405 onwards, his health declined, mainly due to a skin condition, possibly leprosy or psoriasis. He eventually died on 20 March 1413 aged 45.

Henry V

The second Lancastrian king was Henry V. At 27, he had a playboy image. Henry had been at the Battle of Shrewsbury aged 16. He was hit in the face by an arrow that left a deep scar on his cheek. In the instant he became king, Henry set aside the companions of his riotous princely lifestyle in favour of piety and duty.

Aware that he could face the same threats as his father, Henry organised an invasion of France to unite the kingdom behind him. Although he exposed the Southampton Plot as he prepared to leave, another effort to put Edmund Mortimer on the throne, his plan worked.

A common cause and the chance of glory and riches distracted those who questioned his rule. At the Battle of Agincourt on 25 October 1415, Henry wore a crown on top of his helm, and the unexpected victory against overwhelming numbers sealed his position as king, approved by God.

In 1420, Henry secured the Treaty of Troyes which recognised him as Regent of France, heir to Charles VI’s throne, and saw him married to one of Charles’s daughters. He died on campaign on 31 August 1422 of dysentery aged 35, just weeks before Charles passed away. His death sealed his reputation at the very height of his powers.

King Henry V

Henry VI

King Henry VI was 9 months old when his father died. He is the youngest monarch in English and British history, and within weeks he became King of France on the death of his grandfather Charles VI. Child kings were never a good thing, and England faced a long minority government.

Henry was crowned at Westminster Abbey on 6 November 1429 aged 7 and in Paris on 16 December 1431 just after his 10th birthday. He is the only monarch ever to be crowned in both countries, but factions developed and tore at the fabric of England, some favouring war and others championing its end.

Henry grew into a man who craved peace. When he married Margaret of Anjou, a niece of the Queen of France, not only did she bring no dowry, but Henry gave huge parts of his French territories to Charles VII, who had also been crowned King of France.

The rifts in Henry’s kingdoms widened until the Wars of the Roses erupted. Henry was deposed by the Yorkist faction, and although he was briefly restored in 1470, he lost the crown again the following year and was killed within the Tower of London on 21 May 1471, aged 49.

Edward IV

On 30 December 1460, Edward, son of Richard, Duke of York, was proclaimed king in place of Henry VI. Edward was 18, at 6’4” the tallest monarch in English or British history, charismatic but prone to overindulgence. In 1464, he announced that he had married a Lancastrian widow in secret.

The match outraged the nobility, who had been planning a marriage to a foreign princess, and as the decade progressed he fell out with his cousin Richard, Earl of Warwick, who is remembered as the Kingmaker. Edward’s brother George joined the rebellion, and in 1470 Edward was driven from England into exile in Burgundy.

Henry VI was restored as Warwick took the reins of government, but Edward returned with his youngest brother Richard in 1471. Warwick was defeated and killed at the Battle of Barnet, and Henry’s only son died at the subsequent Battle of Tewkesbury.

Henry was done away with when Edward returned to London, and the Yorkist crown seemed secure. Edward’s unexpected death from illness on 9 April 1483, aged 40, led to one of the most controversial years in English history.

Detail of historiated initial of Edward IV. Image credit: British Library / CC

Edward V

Edward’s oldest son was proclaimed King Edward V. His father’s early death when his heir was just 12 raised the spectre of minority government again at a time when France was renewing aggression against England. Edward had been raised in his own household at Ludlow since he was 2 years old in the care of his mother’s family.

Edward IV appointed his brother Richard to act as regent for his son, but the queen’s family tried to bypass this by having Edward V crowned immediately. Richard had some of them arrested and sent north, executing them later.

In London, Richard was recognised as Protector but caused uncertainty when he had Edward IV’s closest friend William, Lord Hastings beheaded on a charge of treason.

A story emerged that Edward IV had already been married when he wed Elizabeth Woodville. The precontract made his marriage bigamous and the children of the union illegitimate and incapable of inheriting the throne.

Edward V and his brother Richard were set aside, and their uncle was offered the crown as Richard III. Remembered as the Princes of the Tower, the boys’ final fates remain the subject of debate.

The Princes in the Tower by Samuel Cousins.

Richard III

Richard, Duke of Gloucester ascended the throne as King Richard III on 26 June 1483. He distanced himself from his brother’s reign, launching a scathing attack on its corruption.

A combination of this, his unpopular policies to reform the realm, the uncertainty surrounding his nephews, and efforts to promote the cause of the exiled Henry Tudor caused problems from the beginning of his reign. By October 1483, there was rebellion in the south.

The most senior rebel was Henry Stafford, Duke of Buckingham, who had been at Richard’s right hand since the death of Edward IV. The falling out might have revolved around the Princes in the Tower – Richard or Buckingham having murdered them, outraging the other.

The rebellion was crushed, but Henry Tudor remained at large in Brittany. In 1484, Richard’s parliament passed a set of laws that have been praised for their quality and fairness, but personal tragedy struck.

His only legitimate son died in 1484, and in the early months of 1485, his wife passed away too. Henry Tudor invaded in August 1485, and Richard was killed fighting bravely at the Battle of Bosworth on 22 August. The last King of England to die in battle, his reputation suffered during the Tudor era that followed.

On 25 October, also known as St Crispin’s Day, 1415, a combined English and Welsh army gained one of history’s most remarkable victories at Agincourt in north eastern France.

Despite being heavily outnumbered, Henry V’s tired, beleaguered army triumphed against the flower of the French nobility, marking the end of an era where the knight dominated the battlefield.

Here are ten facts about the Battle of Agincourt:

1. It was preceded by the Siege of Harfleur

Although the siege eventually proved successful, it had been long and costly for Henry’s army.

2. The French army positioned themselves near Agincourt, blocking Henry’s route to Calais

The French army’s clever manoeuvring forced Henry and his beleaguered army to fight if they were to have any chance of reaching home.

3. The French army consisted almost entirely of heavily-armoured knights

These men were the warrior elite of the time, equipped with the best arms and armour available.

4. The French army was commanded by the French marshal Jean II Le Maingre, also known as Boucicaut

Boucicaut was one of the greatest jousters of his day and a skilled tactician. He was also aware of the past defeats the French had suffered at English hands at both Crecy and Poitiers the previous century and was determined to avoid a similar outcome.

5. Henry’s army consisted mainly of longbowmen

A self-yew English longbow. Credit: James Cram / Commons.

These men trained every single week and were highly-skilled professional killers. This was no doubt helped by English law, which made archery practice compulsory every Sunday to ensure the king always had a steady supply of archers available.

6. Henry made the first move

Henry advanced his army further up the field to a position protected by woodland on either side in his hopes to entice the French knights forwards.

7. The English longbowmen deployed sharpen stakes to protect them from cavalry charges

The stakes also tunnelled the French knights towards Henry’s heavily armed infantrymen in the centre.

The longbowmen had protected their positions on the flanks of Henry’s army with stakes. Credit: PaulVIF / Commons.

8. The first wave of French knights was decimated by the English longbowmen

As the knights charged forwards, the longbowmen rained volley after volley of arrows down on their opponents and decimated the French ranks.

A 15th-century miniature of the Battle of Agincourt. Contrary to the image, the battlefield was chaos and there was no exchange of archer fire. Credit: Antoine Leduc, Sylvie Leluc and Olivier Renaudeau / Commons.

9. Henry V fought for his life during the fray

When the French knights clashed with the English heavy infantry at the height of the battle, Henry V was in the thickest of the action.

Supposedly the English king suffered an axe blow to his head which knocked off one of the crown’s jewels and was rescued by a Welsh member of his bodyguard, Daffyd Gam, who lost his life in the process.

10. Henry had more than 3,000 French prisoners executed during the battle

One source claims Henry did this because he was worried the captives would escape and rejoin the fighting.

What caused the conflict?

In the simplest terms, the war began because Richard, Duke of York, believed he had a better claim to the throne than the man sitting on it, Henry VI.

Ever since Henry II, the first Plantagenet, took power, kings struggled to keep a firm grip on the crown and not all of them succeeded. Edward II, for example, was ousted by his wife and replaced by his son Edward III.

Problems occurred in 1399 when Richard II was deposed by his cousin, Henry Bolingbroke who would go on to be the Henry IV. This created two competing lines of the family, both of which thought they had the rightful claim.

On the one hand were the descendants of Henry IV – known as the Lancastrians – and on the other the heirs of Richard II. In the 1450s, the leader of this family was Richard of York; his followers would come to be known as the Yorkists.

A dodgy king

However, all this dynastic arguing was something of a smokescreen. What really mattered were more practical issues and in particular the problematic reign of Henry VI.

A portrait of the ailing Henry VI whose inability to rule effectively due to his illness contributed to the outbreak of the Wars of the Roses.

Thanks to the military successes of his father, Henry V, England held vast swathes of France and Henry VI was the only King of England to be crowned King of France and England. However, it was not a title he could hold onto for long and over the course of his reign he gradually lost almost all England’s possessions in France.

Finally, in 1453, defeat at the Battle of Castillon called an end to the Hundred Years War and left England with only Calais from all their French possessions.

The English nobility was incensed by the loss of power and French land, and factional tensions broke out. Mounting pressures on Henry led to a major breakdown in 1453. Historians believe he suffered from a condition known as catatonic schizophrenia which would see him lapse into catatonic states for long periods of time.

Battle for power

Henry’s weakness created two factions at court. One, led by the Duke of Gloucester and Richard, Duke of York, favoured a more aggressive policy in the war, while the other led by the Dukes of Suffolk and Somerset favoured peace. They were supported by the Queen Margaret of Anjou who was rumoured to be having an affair with Somerset.

With Henry in no fit state to rule, Richard was named Protector of the Realm, naming many of his close associates in important positions. However, on Christmas Day 1444 the king recovered, and he set about undoing York’s appointments. His fatal error was to exclude York and his faction, supported by the Earl of Warwick, from a council to be held in Leicester in May 1455.

The two sides met in the Battle of St Albans. It was only a small encounter, but it saw the death of the Duke of Somerset and several other Lancastrian noblemen. This created sons who were out for revenge and turned a dynastic struggle into an even more poisonous blood feud.

Even then there were chances to turn back. The Act of Accord in 1460 named Richard heir, but there was no turning back. Margaret – perhaps grieving for Somerset – was determined to get her revenge on Richard.

She would have it when he himself was killed in battle, but that only left his son Edward who was even more determined to get his revenge. The Wars of York and Lancaster had begun.

The Battle of Agincourt is seen as part of the Hundred Years War, which began when King Edward III claimed that he was the true heir to the kingless land of France.

Henry’s initial foray

The Hundred Years War, despite its name, was not a continuous conflict, and in fact in the months before Henry’s campaign the opposing nations had been trying hard to reach a diplomatic compromise which would suit them both.

Negotiations broke down however, and Henry was furious at the French delegation’s haughty treatment of him, launching an expedition into France in retaliation.

Detail of a miniature of Henry V of England. Image credit: Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Henry’s army of 12,000 besieged the coastal town of Harfleur. This was not expected to take long, but the defenders were well-lead and motivated, and the siege continued for well over a month. As it dragged on, the English army was ravaged by dysentery and thousands died in miserable agony.

By the time the town fell on the 22nd September, campaigning season was almost over, as winter presented serious problems for the supply lines of medieval armies.

Though his army was too small to fight the French directly again, Henry wanted to march from Harfleur in Normandy to the English-held town of Calais in a display of impudence.

The French counter-attack

However, the French had gathered a vast army around the town of Rouen in the meantime. A contemporary source gives the size of the their force as 50,000, though it was probably slightly fewer, and on their way north to Calais, the English army found its way barred by a vast host of Frenchmen.

The differences between the two armies went beyond size. The English was largely comprised of longbowmen, largely lower class men, skilled with the English longbow. Few men around today could draw the weapon, which required years of training to use.

Longbowmen possessed astonishing strength, which meant that they were also deadly in a melee despite their almost complete lack of armour. Some were so beset by dysentery that they had to fight without trousers on.

The French, on the other hand, were far more aristocratic, and one source even claims that the French turned down the use of 4000 crossbowmen because they believed that they would not need the help of such a cowardly weapon.

The only thing that the English had in their favour was the battlefield itself, near the castle of Agincourt. The battlefield was narrow, muddy, and hemmed in by thick woodland. This was bad terrain for horsemen, and a critical factor, as many French nobles liked to fight mounted as a sign of status.

The battle

The French knights launched a furious charge at their enemy, but volleys of arrows combined with the mud and angled stakes, placed in the ground by the longbowmen, ensured that they got nowhere near the English lines. Adopting a different approach, the heavily armoured French men-at-arms then advanced on foot.

A hundred years prior, at Crecy, English arrows had been able to pierce through plate armour, but now advances in the design meant that only a lucky strike or close-range hit would do any serious damage. As a result, despite hails of arrows the French were able to close with the English line and then begin furious close-quarters fighting.

Though the English arrows had not killed many Frenchmen outright, by the time they reached the English lines they were utterly exhausted.

‘The Morning of the Battle of Agincourt’ (1884) by John Gilbert. Image credit: Sir John Gilbert (1817–1897), Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Fresh and unencumbered by heavy armour, the longbowmen were able to dance around their richer opponents and hammer them to death using hatchets, swords and the mallets they had used to drive their stakes in.

Henry was in the thick of the fighting himself and suffered an axe blow to his head which knocked half of the crown off the King’s helmet.

French commander Charles d’Albret poured more men into the fight, but the narrow terrain meant that they could not use these numbers to their advantage, and more and more died in the crush. D’Albret was killed, joining many thousands of his men.

The aftermath

Henry’s army made it back to Calais. The prisoners they took at the battle had almost outnumbered the English, but with many Frenchmen still lurking nearby the King had them all killed – much to the disgust of his men, who had hoped to sell them back to their families for large sums.

Late 15th-century depiction of Henry’s marriage to Catherine of Valois. Image credit: Unknown author, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Shellshocked by the scale of the defeat, the ailing French King Charles VI declared Henry his heir in 1420. England had won.

Then Henry V died young, in 1422, and the French went back on their promise. Eventually they forced all Englishmen out of their country and won the war in 1453.

The Battle of Agincourt, immortalised by William Shakespeare, has come to represent an important part of British national identity.