However experts using modern technologies have now “recreated” King Richard III’s voice, complete with Yorkshire accent and medieval pronunciation, which features in the History Hit documentary, A Voice for Richard III, available 21 November.

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After first being exhibited at York Theatre Royal, the digital avatar developed by Face Lab at Liverpool John Moores University and the new voice feature in an original documentary presented by historian Matt Lewis, who explores its creation and significance.

“The voice for Richard project has set out to give Richard back his own voice,” says Matt Lewis, co-host of the Gone Medieval podcast. “This is a project that brings together history with technology, art, science, language and one of my favourite historical personalities, King Richard III.”

Matt Lewis speaks with Yvonne Morley-Chisolm

Image Credit: History Hit / A Voice for King Richard III

“This is as close as we can get to being in the room in the fifteenth century when a king speaks. I can’t wait for the world to see the culmination of ten years of hard work and innovation.”

Expert voice teacher and vocal coach Yvonne Morley-Chisolm embarked on the research project with the aim of creating a literal voice for the long-dead historical figure. 10 years of work contributed to the final reconstruction, which involved research in the field of Historical Human Reconstruction and experts from the UK and abroad.

“We are bringing a long dead king back to a kind of ‘life’, says Morley-Chisolm. “We are learning more about the real man in doing so.”

“Since we produced the facial reconstruction of Richard III in 2012, we have dreamt about bringing him alive, to see him move and speak his own words,” says Professor Carolin Wilkinson, a leading cranio-facial identification expert.

“The result has exceeded our expectations and represents the most authentic and realistic portrait of this great king, based on all evidence available.”

Find out more about the remarkable project to give King Richard III a voice by signing up to History Hit.

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For a man who was only King of England for just over two years, between 26 June 1483 and 22 August 1485, it is astonishing that he still garners such interest. Yet, it should come as little surprise. His reign is a story of high politics, rebellion, death on the battlefield, and the fate of his two young nephews, remembered by history as the Princes in the Tower.

Richard III is alternately remembered as a cruel tyrant and a worthy sovereign. Given the scarcity of evidence and the problems with the available material, the disputes are likely to continue for some time yet.

So, why exactly is Richard III controversial?

The sources

The second half of the 15th century is a bare, rocky chasm between the rich shores of the monk chronicles of the previous centuries and the fertile plains of government records that evolved in Henry VIII’s reign under Thomas Cromwell. There were a few citizen chronicles, such as Warkworth’s, which ends in 1474, and Gregory’s, which concludes even earlier in 1470. They provide useful information but stop before Richard becomes a central figure.

Monks generally no longer kept their local or national accounts of events. They had scribbled away in their cloisters in previous centuries and came with their own set of problems. Still, they were frequently reasonably well informed and at least kept long-term records of the significant events within the kingdom. Knowing a source’s problems is always vital in making the best use of it.

King Richard III

Image Credit: National Portrait Gallery, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Those sources that refer to Richard III’s accession and reign are frequently compiled later, after his death, and during the rule of the Tudor family, who defeated Richard. They often speak in terms of rumours, too, because it seems even those living through some of these events were never quite sure exactly what had gone on.

The Crowland Chronicler is one of the most politically informed commentators but wrote anonymously in 1486, after Bosworth. Despite this apparent freedom to criticise Richard and bolster the fledgling Tudor regime, he actually has some nice things to say about Richard. Most telling of all, his only comment on the Princes in the Tower is that as part of the October Rebellions in 1483, “a rumour was spread that the sons of king Edward before-named had died a violent death, but it was uncertain how”.

The writer never offers his opinion of what happened to the sons of Edward IV, only that a rumour of their death was begun to swell support for a rebellion against Richard. If Crowland didn’t know what had happened, it seems likely no other commentator would.

Mancini: French spy?

“I was insufficiently apprised of the names of those to be described, the intervals of time and the secret designs of men in this whole affair.”

This is how Domenico Mancini begins his account of the events of 1483. He explains that his patron, Archbishop Angelo Cato, has twisted his arm to write down what seems to have been a popular after-dinner talk Mancini had been giving. Thus, he writes:

“… you should not expect from me the names of individuals and places, nor that this account is complete in all particulars: rather it will resemble the likeness of a man, which lacks some of the limbs, and yet the viewer clearly designates it as a man.”

Failing to take his work with a pinch of salt when he has warned us to do so would seem reckless.

Mancini’s patron, Angelo Cato, was in the service of Louis XI of France. Mancini wrote his account in December 1483, by which time Louis had died, leaving behind a 13-year-old son. By 1485, France was embroiled in The Mad War, a civil war for the regency that lasted until 1487.

France had been on the brink of renewing hostilities with England when Edward IV died, shortly followed by Louis XI. It is possible that Mancini was in England as a French spy in the spring of 1483, and certainly, he tailored his story of the terrible English to appeal to a French ear. Speaking no English and bearing a potential political agenda, Mancini is right to urge us to caution in relying on his testimony.

Sir Thomas More

One of the sources most often cited for condemning Richard III is History of King Richard III by Sir Thomas More. More, a lawyer who rose high in the service of Henry VIII, only to fall foul of the executioner’s axe when he refused to back Henry’s break with Rome, is a fascinating figure.

Many consider his testimony almost unquestionable: he would surely have checked his facts as a lawyer and later a saint, had no reason to lie and he had access to people who had lived through the events. Born in 1478, More was five at the time of the events of 1483. He wrote his account from about 1512, left it unfinished, and never published it. More himself never meant us to read it. His nephew finished it and published it years after More’s execution.

More’s account of Richard has been celebrated more as a great literary work than for historical accuracy. Sir Thomas More (1527) by Hans Holbein the Younger.

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain

In the 16th century, history was a branch of rhetoric. It was not the investigation and retelling of facts as we understand history today. More’s Richard III appears to be a work of allegory. He points to this in his very first sentence. “King Edward of that name the Fourth, after he had lived fifty and three years, seven months, and six days, and thereof reigned two and twenty years, one month, and eight days, died at Westminster the ninth day of April”. Edward IV actually died 19 days short of his 41st birthday. So much for fact-checking.

Interestingly, Henry VII died aged 52. If More’s Edward IV is meant to be read as Henry VII, then Edward V is the promise of a new, young king, which is what everyone expected from Henry VIII in 1509. Richard III represents the destruction of that promise and descent into tyranny, which can be seen in Henry’s early actions, including the executions of Richard Empson and Edmund Dudley. They were killed for doing as Henry VII had instructed them, sacrificed to court popularity.

Perhaps More stopped writing as he rose in royal service, believing he could effect change from the inside. When we consider More’s reliability, like Mancini, his own words should give us pause for thought.

Shakespeare

Believing that Shakespeare should be accepted as a historical account of any history is akin to watching Downton Abbey and taking it as an accurate account of the Crawley family in the early 20th century. Like More, there is an interpretation of Shakespeare’s Richard III that has him hanging a contemporary political message on the mannequin of Richard III. If Shakespeare remained a staunch Catholic, as some theories suggest, he might have pointed to Robert Cecil, the son of William Cecil, Lord Burghley, Elizabeth I’s chief minister.

Robert is known to have suffered from kyphosis, the forward curvature of the spine that Shakespeare’s villain displayed. Richard III’s skeleton has demonstrated that he had scoliosis, but not a limp or withered arm. The audience watches as Richard explains his plans to disrupt the succession and murder anyone in his way, just as Robert Cecil was orchestrating the Protestant succession of James VI of Scotland.

William Hogarth’s depiction of the actor David Garrick as Shakespeare’s Richard III. He is shown to awake from nightmares of the ghosts of those he has murdered.

Image Credit: Walker Art Gallery via Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain

So, a large part of the reason debate continues about Richard III’s reputation and the events of 1483, in particular, is the lack of source material to help reach a definitive conclusion. This creates space that only a subjective assessment can fill.

Most people approach the story of Richard III with a firmly embedded pre-conception, and the lack of evidence means that all sides of his story can be argued convincingly, while none can be proven conclusively. Unless new evidence is uncovered, the debate seems likely to continue.

After Parliament declaring the children of his brother, Edward IV, illegitimate, Richard, then the Duke of Gloucester and the Lord Protector, ascended to the throne and was declared King of England.

While many speculate and debate about the validity of his accession and his involvement in the disappearance of the Princes in the Tower, all can agree that his reign ended on August 22, 1485 at the Battle of Bosworth. On this day, Richard III, and many of his closest supporters, were killed by the Lancastrian forces of Henry Tudor.

This marked the ending of one era and the beginning of another.

1. It was fought near, but not on, Bosworth Field

Despite its name, the Battle of Bosworth did not occur on Bosworth Field. In fact, it is three miles south of Market Bosworth. The battle has also been known as the Battle of Redemore Field or Dadlington Field.

In 2009, The Battlefields Trust eliminated two of the three proposed battle sites, including the popular belief that the battle occurred on Ambion Hill.

During their research and excavation, The Battlefields Trust also found over 22 cannonballs, which is the most to be found on a medieval battlefield.

2. Richard was known for his military leadership and skill

Following the death of his father, the Duke of York, Richard was brought up by Richard Neville, the Earl of Warwick. He trained as a knight in Warwick’s castles in the North, mainly Middleham Castle.

He led military campaigns along the Scottish border. Richard also fought in many decisive battles of the Wars of the Roses, such as Barnet, Tewkesbury, and Bosworth.

While contemporary sources criticise Richard’s ambition and seizing of the English throne in 1483, most also seem to agree that he was a capable military leader and fought valiantly at Bosworth.

Richard fought in the Battle of Tewkesbury.

3. Yet Henry Tudor was relatively inexperienced

After the death of Edward of Westminster at the Battle of Tewkesbury in 1471, Henry Tudor was effectively considered the only Lancastrian heir. Through his mother’s line, he could trace his lineage back to John of Gaunt, a son of Edward III and father to Henry IV.

But much of his life was in exile in Wales and France. He was cared for by his paternal uncle, Jasper Tudor, who fought alongside him.

Bosworth was considered the first military battle of Henry Tudor’s career.

4. The Yorkist troops vastly outnumbered the Lancastrians

Henry Tudor sailed over from France with around 2,000 troops. On his march to the Battle of Bosworth, his numbers at least doubled. Without initially having the pledged support of the Stanley family’s army, Henry Tudor went to battle with around 4,000-5,000 men.

But the royal army of Richard III numbered at least 10,000, if not 15,000. Therefore, the Lancastrian forces were outnumbered either 2:1 or 3:1.

5. King Richard did not actually offer to give his kingdom for a horse

Richard III.

Despite the famous lines of William Shakespeare’s Richard, the actual king did not attempt to flee the battlefield when the battle’s tide turned against him. It is said that Richard wore a crown over his helmet into battle, easily identifying himself as the king.

While some did try to convince the king to flee, he was resolved to win the battle or die alongside his men.

6. The battle was swayed by Sir William Stanley’s involvement

During the majority of the battle, both Sir William and Sir Thomas Stanley remained on the sidelines. Richard III had Thomas Stanley’s son, Lord Strange, held hostage as he attempted to coerce him into fighting for the Yorkists.

With a private army of around 6,000 men, the brothers heavily influenced the outcome of the Battle of Bosworth. It is said that the brother became involved after Richard led a direct charge on Henry, who had been separated from his main force.

The Stanley army attacked Richard’s back flank and effectively changed the outcome of the Battle of Bosworth.

7. It was the final battle of the medieval period in England

While the exact dates of the medieval period are speculated and debated on, the Battle of Bosworth is often considered one of the final moments of the medieval period in England.

The reign of Henry VII, and his dynasty who followed him, begin the early modern period of English history.

8. Richard III was the final English king to die in battle

After the death of Richard III, no English king would later die on the battlefield. Many would still lead their men and fight in battle, yet none would die.

George II would be the last English king to fight in battle in 1743.

9. Henry Tudor became Henry VII and ended the Wars of the Roses

Although it has been dismissed by experts, it was once said that Sir Thomas Stanley had found Richard’s circlet in a hawthorn bush.

Despite these exact details having no contemporary evidence, it seems true that Henry was crowned with fallen Richard’s circlet following his victory at Bosworth.

Sir Thomas Stanley hands the crown to Henry Tudor after the Battle of Bosworth. This image depicts the moment described by Polydore Vergil.

Image Credit: 216 01.10.1942 Трое мужчин хоронят умерших в дни блокады в Ленинграде. Волково кладбище. Борис Кудояров/РИА Новости

Henry would be officially crowned and anointed King Henry VII on 30 October 1485. He married Edward IV’s daughter, Elizabeth of York, and joined together the Houses of York and Lancaster.

While their union was most definitely symbolic, all accounts describe a rather happy marriage between the two.

10. But his throne was not secure after Bosworth

Despite the conflict known as the Wars of the Roses coming to a close with the Battle of Bosworth, Henry Tudor’s throne was anything but secure.

There were Yorkist uprising during his reign. Two of the most important are the uprisings behind Lambert Simnel and Perkin Warbeck. Both were considered Yorkist heirs, either as Edward, the earl of Warwick or Richard of Shrewsbury, the Duke of York.

Both were found to be pretenders. Lambert was pardoned and given a job in the royal household, but Perkin was executed on 23 November 1499.

The wars ended when Richard III, the last Yorkist king, was defeated at the Battle of Bosworth in 1485 by Henry Tudor – founder of the house of Tudor.

Here are 30 facts about the Wars:

1. The seeds of war were sown as far back as 1399

That year Richard II was deposed by his cousin, Henry Bolingbroke who would go on to be the Henry IV. This created two competing lines of the Plantagenet family, both of which thought they had the rightful claim.

On the one side there were the descendants of Henry IV – known as the Lancastrians – and on the other the heirs of Richard II. In the 1450s, the leader of this family was Richard of York; his followers would come to be known as the Yorkists.

2. When Henry VI came to power he was in an incredible position…

Thanks to the military successes of his father, Henry V, Henry VI held vast swathes of France and was the only King of England to be crowned King of France and England.

3. …but his foreign policy soon proved disastrous

Over the course of his reign Henry gradually lost almost all England’s possessions in France.

It culminated in the disastrous defeat at Castillon in 1453 – the battle signalled the end of the Hundred Years War and left England with only Calais from all their French possessions.

The Battle of Castillon: 17 July 1543

4. King Henry VI had favourites who manipulated him and made him unpopular with others

The King’s simple mind and trusting nature left him fatally vulnerable to grasping favourites and unscrupulous ministers.

5. His mental health also affected his ability to rule

Henry VI was prone to bouts of insanity. Once he had suffered from a complete mental breakdown in 1453, from which he never fully recovered, his reign morphed from concerning to catastrophic.

He was certainly incapable of containing the mounting baronial rivalries that eventually culminated in out-and-out civil war.

6. One baronial rivalry outshone all others

This was the rivalry between Richard, 3rd Duke of York and Edmund Beaufort, 2nd Duke of Somerset. York deemed Somerset responsible for the recent military failures in France.

Both nobles made several attempts to destroy each other as they vied for supremacy. In the end their rivalry was only settled through blood and battle.

7. The first battle of the civil war occurred on 22 May 1455 at St Albans

Troops commanded by Richard, Duke of York, resoundingly defeated a Lancastrian royal army commanded by the Duke of Somerset, who was killed in the fighting. King Henry VI was captured, leading to a subsequent parliament appointing Richard of York Lord Protector.

It was the day that launched the bloody, three decades long, Wars of the Roses.

8. A surprise attack paved the way for a Yorkist victory

It was a small force led by the Earl of Warwick that marked the turning point in the battle. They picked their way through small back lanes and rear gardens, then burst into the town’s market square where the Lancastrian forces were relaxing and chatting.

The Lancastrian defenders, realising they were outflanked, abandoned their barricades and fled the town.

A modern day procession as people celebrate the Battle of St Albans. Credit: Jason Rogers / Commons.

9. Henry VI was captured by Richard’s army at the Battle of St Albans

During the battle, Yorkist longbowmen rained arrows onto Henry’s bodyguard, killing Buckingham and several other influential Lancastrian nobles and wounding the king. Henry was later escorted back to London by York and Warwick.

10. An Act of Settlement in 1460 handed the line of succession to Henry VI’s cousin, Richard Plantagenet, Duke of York

It recognised York’s strong hereditary claim to the throne and agreed that the crown would pass to him and his heirs after Henry’s death, thereby disinheriting Henry’s young son, Edward, Prince of Wales.

11. But Henry VI’s wife had something to say about it

Henry’s strong willed wife, Margaret of Anjou, refused to accept the act and continued fighting for the rights of her son.

12. Margaret of Anjou was famously bloodthirsty

After the Battle of Wakefield, she had the heads of York, Rutland and Salisbury impaled on spikes and displayed over Micklegate Bar, the western gate through the York city walls. York’s head had a paper crown as a mark of derision.

On another occasion, she allegedly asked her 7-year-old son Edward how their Yorkist prisoners should be put to death – he replied they should be beheaded.

Margaret of Anjou

13. Richard, Duke of York, was killed at the Battle of Wakefield in 1460

The Battle of Wakefield (1460) was a calculated attempt  by the Lancastrians to eliminate Richard, Duke of York, who was a rival of Henry VI’s for the throne. 

Little is known about the action, but the Duke was successfully enticed out from the safety of Sandal Castle and ambushed. In the subsequent skirmish his forces were massacred, and both the Duke and his second eldest son were killed.

14. No one is sure why York sortied from Sandal Castle on 30 December

This inexplicable move resulted in his death. One theory says that some of the Lancastrian troops advanced openly towards Sandal Castle, while others hid in the surrounding woods. York may have been low on provisions and, believing that the Lancastrian force was no larger than his own, decided to go out and fight rather than withstand a siege.

Other accounts suggest that York was deceived by John Neville of Raby’s forces displaying false colours, which tricked him into thinking that the Earl of Warwick had arrived with aid.

Earl of Warwick submits to Margaret of Anjou

15. And there are a lot of rumours about how he was killed

He was either killed in battle or captured and immediately executed.

Some works support the folklore that he suffered a crippling wound to the knee and was unhorsed, and that he and his closest followers then fought to the death at the spot; others relate that he was taken prisoner, mocked by his captors and beheaded.

16. Richard Neville became known as the Kingmaker

Richard Neville, better known as the Earl of Warwick, was famously known as the Kingmaker for his actions in deposing two kings. He was the wealthiest and most powerful man in England, with his fingers in every pie. He would end up fighting on all sides before his death in battle, supporting whoever could further his own career.

Richard of York, 3rd Duke of York (Variant). The inescutcheon of pretence showing the arms of the House of Holland, Earls of Kent, represents his claim to represent that family, derived from his maternal grandmother Eleanor Holland (1373-1405), one of the six daughters and eventual co-heiresses to their father Thomas Holland, 2nd Earl of Kent (1350/4-1397). Credit: Sodacan / Commons.

17. Yorkshire Yorkists?

The people in the county of Yorkshire were actually mostly on the Lancastrian side.

18. The biggest battle was…

The Battle of Towton, where 50,000-80,000 soldiers fought and an estimated 28,000 were killed. It was also the biggest battle ever fought on English soil. Allegedly, the number of casualties caused a nearby river to run with blood.

19. The Battle of Tewkesbury resulted in the violent death of Henry VI

After the decisive Yorkist victory against Queen Margaret’s Lancastrian force on 4 May 1471 at Tewkesbury, within three weeks the imprisoned Henry was killed in the Tower of London.

The execution was likely ordered by King Edward IV, son of Richard Duke of York.

20. A field on which part of the Battle of Tewkesbury was fought is to this day known as the “Bloody Meadow”

Fleeing members of the Lancastrian army attempted to cross the River Severn but most were cut down by the Yorkists before they could get there. The meadow in question – which leads down to the river – was the location of the slaughter.

21. The War of the Roses inspired Game of Thrones 

George R. R. Martin, Game of Thrones’s author, was heavily inspired by the War of the Roses, with the noble north pitted against the cunning south. King Joffrey is Edward of Lancaster.

22. The rose was not the primary symbol for either house

In fact, both Lancasters and Yorks had their own coat of arms, which they displayed much more often than the alleged rose symbol. It was simply one of the many badges used for identification.

The white rose was an earlier symbol as well, because the red rose of Lancaster was apparently not in use until the late 1480s, that is not until the last years of the Wars.

Credit: Sodacan / Commons.

23. In fact, the symbol is taken directly from literature…

The term The Wars of the Roses only came into common use in the 19th century after the publication in 1829 of Anne of Geierstein by Sir Walter Scott.

Scott based the name on a scene in Shakespeare’s play Henry VI, Part 1 (Act 2, Scene 4), set in the gardens of the Temple Church, where a number of noblemen and a lawyer pick red or white roses to show their loyalty to the Lancastrian or Yorkist house.

24. Treachery happened all the time…

Some of the nobles treated the War of the Roses a bit like a game of musical chairs, and simply became friends with whoever was most likely to be in power in a given moment. The Earl of Warwick, for example, suddenly dropped his allegiance to York in 1470.

25. …but Edward IV had a relatively secure rule

Aside from his treacherous brother George, who was executed in 1478 for stirring up trouble again, Edward IV’s family and friends were loyal to him. Upon his death, in 1483, he named his brother, Richard, as Protector of England until his own sons came of age.

26. Though he did cause quite a stir when he got married

Despite the fact that Warwick was organising a match with the French, Edward IV married Elizabeth Woodville – a woman whose family were gentry not noble, and who was supposed to be the most beautiful woman in England.

Edward IV and Elizabeth Grey

Image Credit: Landscape

27. It resulted in the famous case of the Princes in the Tower

Edward V, King of England and Richard of Shrewsbury, Duke of York were the two sons of Edward IV of England and Elizabeth Woodville surviving at the time of their father’s death in 1483.

When they were 12 and 9 years old they were taken to the Tower of London to be looked after by their uncle, the Lord Protector: Richard, Duke of Gloucester.

This was supposedly in preparation for Edward’s upcoming coronation. However, Richard took the throne for himself and the boys disappeared – the bones of two skeletons were found under a staircase in the tower in 1674, which many assume were the skeletons of the princes.

28. The last battle in the War of the Roses was the Battle of Bosworth Field

After the boys disappeared, many nobles turned on Richard. Some even decided to swear allegiance to Henry Tudor. He faced Richard on 22 August 1485 in the epic and decisive Battle of Bosworth Field. Richard III suffered a deathly blow to the head, and Henry Tudor was the undisputed winner.

The Battle of Bosworth Field.

29. The Tudor rose comes from the symbols of the war

The symbolic end to the Wars of the Roses was the adoption of a new emblem, the Tudor rose, white in the middle and red on the outside.

30. Two more smaller clashes occurred after Bosworth

During Henry VII’s reign, two pretenders to the English crown emerged to threaten his rule: Lambert Simnel in 1487 and Perkin Warbeck in the 1490s.

Simnel claimed to be Edward Plantagenet, 17th Earl of Warwick; meanwhile Warbeck claimed to be Richard, Duke of York – one of the two ‘Princes in the Tower’.

Simnel’s rebellion was quashed after Henry defeated the pretender’s forces at the Battle of Stoke Field on 16 June 1487. Some consider this battle, and not Bosworth, to be the final battle of the Wars of the Roses.

Eight years later, Warbeck’s supporters were similarly defeated in a small clash in the port town of Deal in Kent. The fighting took place on the steeply sloping beach and is the only time in history – apart from Julius Caesar’s first landing on the island in 55 BC – that English forces resisted an invader on Britain’s coastline.

Here are 10 facts about the often misunderstood monarch.

1. Richard was born in Fotheringhay Castle on 2 October 1452

His parents were Richard Plantagenet and Cecily Neville. Richard Plantagenet was descended from Edward III both on his father’s side (great-grandson) and his mother’s side (great-great-great-grandson). During the mental breakdown of Henry VI, he served as Lord Protector of England.

2. Richard was the 12th of 13 children

Richard was part of a big family. Among his siblings was the future King Edward IV and George Plantagenet – who would later become the Duke of Clarence and engage in several conspiracies against Edward.

David Garrick as Richard III, 1745. Image credit: Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Image Credit: William Hogarth, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

3. Richard’s spent some of his childhood years at Middleham Castle in Yorkshire

Following the death of his father, the Duke of York, Richard was brought up by Richard Neville, the Earl of Warwick who owned Middleham Castle. There Richard underwent training to become a knight.

4. Richard married Anne Neville at the age of 20

Anne Neville was Queen of England for most of her husband’s reign, but died in March 1485, five months before Richard III’s death.

5. Richard and Anne funded Cambridge University’s King’s College and Queen’s College

He generously supported the construction of the iconic chapel at Kings College for instance.

6. Richard was loyal to his older brother King Edward IV

He ran the north of England up until his brother’s death in 1483, when Richard became Lord Protector. Richard also remained loyal to Edward when their middle brother, George, rebelled and schemed against the king.

7. Richard was crowned at Westminster Abbey in 1483

The coronation came after Londoners had petitioned Richard to have the throne.

8. Richard fought his final battle at Bosworth in 1485

Richard’s army at the Battle of Bosworth Field was said to be around 8,000 strong, pitted against 5,000 of Henry Tudor’s men.

Battle of Bosworth Field. Image credit: Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons

9. Richard was killed during the Battle

Richard was a strong warrior and managed to unhorse a jousting champion in his final fight. But he was later surrounded by men of Sir William Stanley who were said to have beaten him so hard that his helmet entered his skull, killing him.

10. It is thought the late Duke of Beaufort may be a direct descendent of Richard III

Though Richard is considered to be the last member of the Plantagenet blood line, it is thought the late David Somerset may have been a direct descendent via a possible illegitimate relationship that took place centuries ago.

After 30 years of political manipulation, horrific carnage and brief periods of peace, the wars ended and a new royal dynasty emerged: the Tudors.

Here are 16 key figures from the wars:

1. Henry VI

All was not well in King Henry’s court. He had little interest in politics and was a weak ruler, and also suffered from mental instability that plunged the kingship into turmoil.

This incited rampant lawlessness throughout his realm and opened the door for power-hungry nobles and kingmakers to plot behind his back.

King Henry VI

2. Margaret of Anjou

Henry VI’s wife Margaret was a noble and strong-willed Frenchwoman whose ambition and political savvy overshadowed her husband’s. She was determined to secure a Lancastrian throne for her son, Edward.

3. Richard, Duke of York

Richard of York—as great-grandson of King Edward III—had a strong competing claim on the English throne.

His conflicts with Margaret of Anjou and other members of Henry’s court, as well as his competing claim on the throne, were a leading factor in the political upheaval.

Richard eventually attempted to take the throne, but was dissuaded, although it was agreed that he would become king on Henry’s death. But within a few weeks of securing this agreement, he died in battle at Wakefield.

4. Edmund Beaufort

Edmund Beaufort was an English nobleman and Lancastrian leader whose quarrel with Richard, Duke of York was infamous. In the he 1430s obtained control—with William de la Pole, Duke of Suffolk— of the government of the weak king Henry VI.

But he was later imprisoned when Richard, Duke of York became ‘Lord Protector’, before dying at the Battle of St Albans.

5. Edmund, Earl of Rutland

He was the fifth child and second surviving son of Richard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York, and Cecily Neville. #

By the laws of primogeniture, Edmund’s father, Richard of York had a good claim to the English throne, being descended from the second surviving son of Edward III, giving him a slightly better claim to the throne than the reigning king, Henry VI, who descended from Edward’s third son.

He was killed aged just 17 at the Battle of Wakefield, possibly murdered by the Lancastrian Lord Clifford who sought revenge for the death of his own father at St Albans five years earlier..

6. Edward IV

He was the first Yorkist King of England. The first half of his rule was marred by the violence associated with the Wars of the Roses, but he overcame the Lancastrian challenge to the throne at Tewkesbury in 1471 to reign in peace until his sudden death.

7. Richard III

The alleged remains of Richard III.

Richard III was the last king of the House of York and the last of the Plantagenet dynasty. His defeat at Bosworth Field, the last decisive battle of the Wars of the Roses, marked the end of the Middle Ages in England.

He is the Machiavellian, hunchbacked protagonist of Richard III, one of William Shakespeare’s history plays – famous for supposedly murdering the two Princes in the Tower.

8. George, Duke of Clarence

He was the third surviving son of Richard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York, and Cecily Neville, and the brother of Kings Edward IV and Richard III.

Though a member of the House of York, he switched sides to support the Lancastrians, before reverting to the Yorkists. He was later convicted of treason against his brother, Edward IV, and was executed (allegedly by being drowned in a butt of Malmsey wine).

9. Edward, Earl of Lancaster

Edward of Lancaster was the only son of King Henry VI of England and Margaret of Anjou. He was killed at the Battle of Tewkesbury, making him the only heir apparent to the English throne to die in battle.

10. Richard Neville

Known as Warwick the Kingmaker, Neville was an English nobleman, administrator, and military commander. The eldest son of Richard Neville, 5th Earl of Salisbury, Warwick was the wealthiest and most powerful English peer of his age, with political connections that went beyond the country’s borders.

Originally on the Yorkist side but later switching to the Lancastrian side, he was instrumental in the deposition of two kings, which led to his epithet of “Kingmaker”.

11. Elizabeth Woodville

Elizabeth was Queen consort of England as the spouse of King Edward IV from 1464 until his death in 1483. Her second marriage, to Edward IV, was a cause célèbre of the day, thanks to Elizabeth’s great beauty and lack of great estates.

Edward was the first king of England since the Norman Conquest to marry one of his subjects, and Elizabeth was the first such consort to be crowned queen.

Her marriage greatly enriched her siblings and children, but their advancement incurred the hostility of Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick, ‘The Kingmaker’, and his various alliances with the most senior figures in the increasingly divided royal family.

Edward IV and Elizabeth Grey

Image Credit: Landscape

12. Isabel Neville

In 1469 Isabel’s power-hungry father, Richard Neville, the Earl of Warwick, defected from King Edward IV after his marriage to Elizabeth Woodville. Instead of ruling England through Edward, he planned a marriage for Isabel to Edward’s brother George Duke of Clarence.

George also saw benefit in the union, as the Neville family was extremely wealthy. The marriage took place in secret in Calais, as part of the rebellion of George and Warwick against Edward IV.

13. Anne Neville

Anne Neville was an English queen, the daughter of Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick. She became Princess of Wales as the wife of Edward of Westminster and then Queen of England as the wife of King Richard III.

A watercolour recreation of the Wars of the Roses.

14. Elizabeth of York

Elizabeth of York was the eldest daughter of the Yorkist king Edward IV, sister of the princes in the Tower, and niece of Richard III.

Her marriage to Henry VII was hugely popular – the union of the white rose of York and the red rose of Lancaster was seen as bringing peace after years of dynastic war.

15. Margaret Beaufort

Margaret Beaufort was the mother of King Henry VII and paternal grandmother of King Henry VIII of England. She was the influential matriarch of the House of Tudor.

16. Henry VII

Henry VII was the King of England and Lord of Ireland from his seizure of the crown on 22 August 1485 to his death on 21 April 1509. He was the first monarch of the House of Tudor.

17. Jasper Tudor

Jasper Tudor, Duke of Bedford, Earl of Pembroke, was the uncle of King Henry VII of England and a leading architect of his nephew’s successful accession to the throne in 1485. He was from the noble Tudor family of Penmynydd in North Wales.

However, facts about the much-maligned regent don’t always match up to his fictional portrayals.

Here are 5 myths about Richard III that are either inaccurate, unknowable or just plain untrue.

An engraving of Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth.

1. He was an unpopular king

The impression we have of Richard as an evil and treacherous man with a murderous ambition mostly comes from Shakespeare. Yet he was probably more or less well liked.

While Richard was certainly no angel, he enacted reforms that improved the lives of his subjects, including the translation of laws into English and making the legal system more fair.

His defence of the North during the rule of his brother also improved his standing among the people. Furthermore, his assumption of the throne was approved by Parliament and the rebellion he faced was a typical occurrence for a monarch at the time.

2. He was a hunchback with a shrivelled arm

There are some Tudor references to Richard’s shoulders being somewhat uneven and the examination of his spine shows evidence of scoliosis – yet none of the accounts from his coronation mention any such physical characteristics.

More proof of posthumous character assassination are X-rays of portraits of Richard that show they were altered to have him appear hunchbacked. At least one contemporary portrait shows no deformities.

3. He killed the two princes in the Tower

Princes Edward and Richard.

After the death of their father, Edward IV, Richard lodged his two nephews — Edward the V of England and Richard of Shrewsbury — in the Tower of London. This was supposedly in preparation for Edward’s coronation. But instead, Richard became king and the two princes were never seen again.

Though Richard certainly had a motive to kill them, there has never been any evidence discovered that he did, nor that the princes were even murdered. There are also other suspects, such as Richard III’s ally Henry Stafford and Henry Tudor, who executed other claimants to the throne.

In the following years, at least two people claimed to be Richard of Shrewsbury, leading some to believe that the princes were never murdered.

4. He was a bad ruler

Like the claims of unpopularity, evidence does not support this assertion, which is mostly founded upon the opinions and contentions of the Tudors.

In fact, evidence suggests that Richard was an open-minded regent and talented administrator. During his brief reign he encouraged foreign trade and the growth of the printing industry as well as establishing — under his brother’s rule —the Council of the North, which lasted until 1641.

5. He poisoned his wife

Anne Neville was Queen of England for most of her husband’s reign, but died in March 1485, five months before Richard III’s death on the battlefield. By contemporary accounts, the cause of Anne’s death was tuberculosis, which was common at the time.

Though Richard grieved publicly for his deceased wife, there were rumours that he poisoned her in order to marry Elizabeth of York, but what evidence we have generally refutes this, as Richard sent Elizabeth away and even later negotiated for her marriage with the future King of Portugal, Manuel I.

Elizabeth Woodville was Queen of England during one of the country’s most volatile periods, the Wars of the Roses. Her marriage to the Yorkist king, Edward IV, in 1464 sent shockwaves through the English court, intensifying political strife that would last for decades between the houses of York and Lancaster.

Largely consigned to history as a scheming temptress and social-climber, Elizabeth was realistically an incredibly intelligent and powerful figure in the Wars of the Roses, and joins a host of women side-lined in its history. Here are 10 facts about the captivating ‘White Queen’.

1. Her parents’ marriage caused a scandal at court

Elizabeth Woodville was born in Grafton Regis, Northamptonshire around the year 1437. Unlike most of her predecessors as Queen of England however, her family name was not always ‘great’, and at the time of her birth was even beset by scandal.

Her mother, the eminent noblewoman Jacquetta of Luxembourg, had secretly married lowly knight Richard Woodville after the pair fell in love when he was ordered to escort her to England. When news of this broke, a court scandal ensued and Henry VI forced them to pay a hefty fine of £1,000.

Jacquetta had for a brief period been married to Henry VI’s uncle, therefore marriage to a knight was outrageous for one considered the king’s aunt! When Elizabeth was born, the Woodville name must still have been a sore topic of discussion in most of England’s eminent circles.

2. She was married before Edward IV – to a Lancastrian!

Through her parents’ strong links to the House of Lancaster, Elizabeth began much of her life on the side of the red rose during the Wars of the Roses. In 1452, aged only 15, she married her first husband Sir John Grey of Groby, who too was a Lancastrian supporter. They had two sons – Thomas and Richard. 

In 1461, the bloody Second Battle of St Albans claimed Grey’s life whilst fighting on the Lancastrian side, and Elizabeth was now a widow aged 24. Desperately seeking support for her young sons, she could never have imagined what would happen next.

3. Legend surrounds her first meeting with the king

The story of Elizabeth Woodville’s meeting with Edward IV is something of a mystery. Legend tells that following her husband’s death, the future queen stood waiting beneath an oak tree with her two young boys, hoping that the king would pass by. In desperation, she sought to petition him for the reinstatement of their lands, yet got far more than she bargained for.

When he did indeed pass, he was reportedly so enamoured by her beauty that he insisted on making her his mistress right then and there. Appalled by this suggestion, she pulled a dagger on him and threatened to slit her own throat should she be forced to do so. Tantalised by her refusal, he instead offered to make her his queen.

While this is likely mere folklore, it is known that Elizabeth was a great beauty and may well have unsuspectingly dazzled the king into his proposal of marriage, as contemporary reports name her:

‘the most beautiful woman in the Island of Britain’.

4. Their marriage was not well-received

As her parents’ scandalous marriage had been, Elizabeth and Edward IV’s union was undertaken in secret on 1 May 1464. By September however, the news was out – to the horror of the Privy Council. Edward IV had taken the throne from the Lancastrians only 3 years before at the Battle of Towton, and was still dangerously susceptible to losing it. 

The Earl of Warwick – aka the Kingmaker – had been locked in tireless talks with the French to marry one of their princesses to Edward, thus when the king announced to the court that he had in fact already wedded a commoner, and the widow of a Lancastrian no less, he was gobsmacked.

Their relationship never recovered, and Warwick would go on to betray Edward in the coming years.

The marriage of Edward IV and Elizabeth Woodville, illuminated miniature from Vol. 6 of Jean de Wavrin’s Anciennes Chroniques d’Angleterre Francais, c.15th century. (Image Credit: Public Domain)

5. She built a powerful faction around her 

Now widely hated at court, Elizabeth sought to build a strong contingent of supporters around her.

Bringing 12 siblings into the royal fold, she soon set about arranging advantageous marriages for each of them, such as the union of her 19-year-old brother to the elderly yet powerful and wealthy Duchess of Norfolk. Such actions aided in her lasting legacy as a calculated schemer, who promoted the interests of her family over that of the kingdom.

In reality, while it was clearly advantageous for the Woodville faction to grow in strength around Elizabeth, Edward IV was also pursuing a policy of reconciliation with the Lancastrians who had fought against him. Promoting a traditionally Lancastrian family sent a message to other supporters that the new Yorkist king had a penchant for forgiveness.

6. She was the ‘true founder’ of Queens’ College, Cambridge 

Queens’ College, Cambridge was first founded in 1448 by Margaret of Anjou, Henry VI’s fierce queen consort.

Her mission to ‘laud and honour [the] sex feminine’ in establishing the college clearly resonated with her successor and rival Elizabeth however, as when Edward IV sought its dissolution following his ascension to the throne, she stepped in to save and refound it in 1465.

A portion of her yearly income was set aside for its upkeep and improvement, and it flourished under her patronage. While contemporary accounts named Margaret as ‘fundatrix rostra prima’ (first founder), Elizabeth was named ‘vera fundatrix’ (true founder), and her portrait now hangs in the college’s Old Hall.

7. Richard III became her mortal enemy 

Following her husband’s unexpected death from probable pneumonia in 1483, Elizabeth entered into a vicious battle for control of her young son Edward V. Richard of Gloucester, the king’s brother and future Richard III, was named Lord Protector to the 12-year-old boy and swiftly removed him from under the protection of his Woodville relations.

Believing Elizabeth was attempting to overthrow him, he issued a declaration the following year that invalidated her marriage to Edward IV, and even suggested she and her mother had achieved it ‘by sorcery and witchcraft’. Her sons were named illegitimate, and Richard took the throne.

8. She lost most of her close male relatives to the Wars of the Roses

Being so violently close to the centre of the wars took a huge toll on Elizabeth and her family. Through the entire conflict spanning 1455-87, she saw the death of her first husband in battle, the executions of her father, two of her brothers and her son Anthony, and the infamous disappearance of her two youngest sons.

They are widely remembered as the Princes in the Tower after they were imprisoned by Richard III in the Tower of London and never heard of again, with much intrigue still surrounding what really happened to them.

9. She arranged a monumental marriage for her eldest daughter 

Having suffered losses so great in her lifetime, Elizabeth was determined to forge a better future for her descendants. She joined forces with Margaret Beaufort, another of the period’s most influential women, and together made a plan to join their two great houses in marriage.

The union of Elizabeth of York, Elizabeth Woodville’s eldest daughter, and Henry Tudor, Margaret Beaufort’s son, would bring to a close decades of political strife.

They were at last married in 1486 following Richard III’s death at Bosworth Field, and ascended the throne as the new King and Queen of England. The red rose of Lancaster and white rose of York were combined to create the Tudor rose, a symbol still widely used today in British iconography.

Elizabeth of York by unknown, c.16th century. (Image Credit: Public Domain)

10. She was present at the birth of Henry VIII

With a sense of peace now achieved, Elizabeth Woodville retreated to Bermondsey Abbey in Surrey to live out her life as queen dowager. She occasionally returned to court and was present at the birth of two grandchildren – Margaret, the future Queen of Scotland, and Henry, the future Henry VIII. 

On 8 June, 1492 she died at Bermondsey aged 55 and was laid to rest beside her husband in St. George’s Chapel in Windsor Castle. The infamous House of Tudor, founded by she and Beaufort’s political savvy, would rule for the next hundred years in a dynasty still captivating audiences to this day.

Did Henry win in 1485 or did Richard lose? Either way there is always the nagging thought that it was neither. So, who won the battle? Let me offer you Lord Thomas Stanley.

Husband number three

Within two months of Henry’s birth at Pembroke Castle in January 1457 Margaret Beaufort, his young mother, left the security of the West Wales stronghold and headed east to Monmouthshire.

Jasper Tudor, her brother-in-law, knew that with Margaret’s husband (his brother Edmund) dead, she needed a new husband and her son a new protector.

A first attempt ended in failure when husband number two, Henry Stafford, was executed by Warwick the Kingmaker after the Battle of Edgecote. Husband number three was an altogether more successful choice.

Lord Thomas Stanley was one of the richest and most powerful men in England. A supporter of Edward IV, it was only after Richard of Gloucester seized the crown in 1483 that he began to have doubts.

Margaret had hitched her star to the Yorkist cause by marrying Stanley but undoubtedly her aim was to obtain a pardon for her son – then languishing in exile in Brittany.

From the beginning of their relationship Margaret could see that Stanley was a prevaricator. He had no love for the usurper Richard but Henry was an unknown alternative.

Nevertheless he allowed Margaret to write secretly to her son, promising his support – and that of his younger brother William – should the last of the Lancastrian princes decide to invade.

The message gave Henry heart, even though the promise of support was indirect and given at second hand.

Quartered arms of Sir Thomas Stanley, 1st Earl of Derby, KG. Image Credit: Rs-nourse / Commons.

Hedging his bets

Henry left Harfleur with his small invasion force on 1 August 1485, having had no further communication from his father-in-law. He trusted Stanley’s word but throughout the march northwards from Milford Haven a lack of further contact with the powerful Stanley continued to plague Henry. When the time came how would his father-in-law jump?

The worry would simply not go away. Henry regularly despatched messages to Stanley, writing or sending out envoys every time his army paused to rest, but received little in reply. When he did respond Stanley was non-committal.

At Machynlleth Henry’s concern was so great that he consulted a local soothsayer about his chances of victory. The prophet gave a positive reply – perhaps understandable with dozens of heavily armed troops around his door. If Henry could have received so positive a response from his father-in-law he would have been deliriously happy.

Without Stanley’s support, Henry’s army would have been greatly outnumbered by Richard III’s royal force.

Richard III takes action

Meanwhile Stanley was receiving threatening messages from the King, demanding that he join him at Nottingham. Pleading illness – the so-called sweating sickness – Stanley stayed away from court which led Richard to take his son George, Lord Strange as hostage.

If Thomas Stanley was annoyed at this his brother William was infuriated, declaring Richard’s action as un-knightly and base. He then declared for Henry. Even so he did not move his troops any closer to the invader and Henry was actually no better off.

When he sent requests for the Stanleys to meet him at Shrewsbury – a Stanley enclave –  there was no reply.

It was not all doom and gloom, however. After refusing Henry entry to the town, the bailiff changed his mind when a message from Lord Stanley was apparently thrown over the wall (wrapped around a stone) ordering the gates to be opened. The unaccountable arrival of Stanley’s son-in-law with 1,000 troops also played a part.

Aiding from a distance

Stanley’s behaviour continued to puzzle Henry. When he entered the town of Lichfield, he found that Thomas had been there a few days before and had effectively “paved the way” for him. Henry was welcomed by the townspeople as the future King but Thomas Stanley stayed resolutely away.

Stanley had left his castle at Lathom on 15 August and was soon in position mid-way between the forces of Henry and Richard where he could turn whichever way he chose.

Henry and Lord Stanley did finally meet at Merevale Priory on 21 August, the day before the battle, and Henry came away pleased at Stanley’s promises. Jasper Tudor and the Earl of Oxford, Henry’s main advisers, were not.

The Battle of Bosworth

Bosworth Field: Richard III and Henry Tudor engage in battle, prominently in the centre.

When, early on 22 August Henry sent a message asking Stanley to take up his position at the head of the vanguard – as agreed during the meeting at Merevale – the reply was devastating. Lord Stanley would take up his battle position but only when Henry and his troops were actively joined in battle.

Despite his declaration of support, William Stanley also declined to attack at that stage.

Henry gazed at Stanley’s 6,000 troops sitting impotently on his right flank and knew that, outnumbered three to one, he would have to fight Richard without their help. The battle lasted just two hours and the Stanleys stayed inactive for most of it.

They watched as Oxford destroyed Richard’s right wing and then saw the King make his final, fatal charge down the hill towards Henry’s exposed and potentially fatal position.

Engraving of Richard III charging at the Battle of Bosworth.

Only when it was clear that Henry was in danger did William Stanley, followed by his brother, send in his troops. King Richard was killed, his army scattered and Henry saved.

Richard had been just a few sword lengths from his enemy when he was battered to the ground. Without the timely intervention of the Stanleys the battle could easily have gone the other way.

Phil Carradice is a well-known writer and historian with over 60 books to his credit. A poet, story teller and broadcaster, he is a regular broadcaster on BBC Radio and TV, presents the BBC Wales History programme “The Past Master”. Following in the Footsteps of Henry Tudor is his most recent book, published by Pen and Sword on 4 September 2019.

Although he had an evident interest in public affairs and a desire to try and reconcile his warring subordinates, his inability to prevent powerful individuals influencing him – each with their own agendas – caused him to make poor decisions that helped plunge his kingdom into anarchy.

Here are 15 facts about Henry VI, the last Lancastrian monarch.

1. He was the only son of Henry V

Following his heroic victory at Agincourt on 25 October 1415 King Henry V subsequently married Catherine of Valois, daughter of the French king Charles VI, in 1420.

A year later, on 6 December 1421, Catherine gave birth to a son, named after his father.

Henry V’s finest hour came at the Battle of Agincourt on 25 October 1415. Dan discusses the major English victory in the Hundred Years’ War with Tobias Capwell, Curator of Arms and Armour at The Wallace Collection. Listen Now

2. He was only nine months old when his father died

Henry V died on 31 August 1422, making his infant son the youngest person to ever succeed to the English throne.

For the next 15 years a regency council ruled for the young Henry. It was dominated by Henry V’s two brothers: John, Duke of Bedford (who oversaw the ongoing war in France) and Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester (who acted as Lord Protector and oversaw affairs at home).

Both Bedford and Gloucester proved capable leaders and administrators during the regency period.

3. During the early years of the regency, English power in France reached its zenith

Bedford’s victory at Verneuil on 14 August 1424 marked the high-tide of English power in France – described by English contemporaries as a second Agincourt.

It was during the regency of Henry VI that Joan of Arc rose to prominence.Watch Now

4. He was the only English king to be also crowned King of France

It occurred because of the Treaty of Troyes, agreed between Henry V and Charles VI in 1420: Henry would marry Charles’ daughter Catherine and both he and his sons would inherit the French throne following Charles’ death.

Thus, when Charles died in 1422 (only two months after Henry V), the infant Henry became the (disputed) successor to the French throne.

He was crowned King Henry VI of England at Westminster Abbey on 6 November 1429; two years later on 16 December 1431 he was also crowned King Henry II of France at Notre Dam in Paris.

5. He was controlled by powerful figures

The most prominent of these figures was Edmund Beaufort, 2^nd Duke of Somerset, and Margaret of Anjou, Henry’s wife. Many suspect Margaret and Edmund were lovers.

6. His reign saw the collapse of almost all English holdings in France

The Royal Council’s choice to appoint Beaufort as commander of the English forces in France proved highly unpopular – especially by the previous commander Richard, Duke of York, who had expected to have his posting renewed.

Somerset’s tenure was plagued by countless military failures and concessions: he surrendered Maine, then lost control of Normandy and finally Gascony following the disastrous Battle of Castillon (17 July 1453).

The Battle of Castillon.

7. He suffered a severe mental breakdown in August 1453…

News of the decisive English defeat at Castillon proved the final straw for Henry, who consequently suffered from a mental breakdown of some kind. For over a year he proved completely unresponsive to anything.

To avert the crisis, the ambitious Richard Duke of York was recalled to London and made Lord Protector – effectively regent.

8. …but he recovered a year later

Henry VI recovered from his insanity at around Christmas time in 1454. Edmund Clere wrote to his cousin John Paston to celebrate the news:

“Blessed be God, the King is well amended, and hath been since Christmas Day; and on Saint John’s Day [27th December] commanded his almoner to ride to Canterbury with his offering, and commanded the secretary to offer to Saint Edward.”

In hindsight however, many describe Henry’s recovery as a national disaster.

9. He was captured at the opening battle of the Wars of the Roses

Henry’s decisions following his recovery would help plunge his country into civil war: the Wars of the Roses. Having alienated the Duke of York and his followers, enmity between the Yorkists and the Lancastrians reached breaking point and hostilities erupted.

The opening engagement at St Albans on 22 May 1455 proved ill-fated for Henry and his army. York and his supporters gained a decisive victory, the Dukes of Somerset and Clifford – two of Henry’s most prominent allies – were killed in the fighting and a wounded Henry was captured.

10. He made a valiant attempt to reconcile his warring nobles

On 25 March 1458 Henry attempted to bring an end to the tumultuous civil war by organising a reconciliation event between prominent Yorkists and Lancastrians at St Paul’s Cathedral.

Although Henry’s attempt at reconciliation was genuine and initially successful, the peace gained at the ‘Loveday’ was short-lived; hostilities broke out again soon after.

11. He was captured a second time

It followed the Lancastrian defeat to the forces of York’s son Edward at the Battle of Northampton on 10 July 1460.

12. Henry was temporarily restored to the English throne on 3 October 1470

The defection of ‘the Kingmaker’ Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick, to the Lancastrian cause in 1470 shifted the pendulum of power in English politics. Edward IV fled into exile and Henry was once again restored as king, albeit in name only – the real power lay with Warwick.

13. His only son died at the Battle of Tewkesbury

The murder of Prince Edward. One version of events states he was taken to Edward IV and executed after he remarked, “I came to recover my father’s heritage.”

On 4 May 1471 Edward and his Yorkists won a decisive victory against Queen Margaret and her Lancastrians at Tewkesbury.

What followed was a massacre, The fleeing force attempted to cross the river Severn and reach safety, but the Yorkists, in hot pursuit, cut down large swathes of them in a meadow by the riverbank – today known as ‘the Bloody Meadow.’

It was during this rout that Henry’s only son, Edward Duke of Westminster, was discovered by Edward IV’s brother the Duke of Clarence, and swiftly beheaded.

14. Henry met his end on 23 May 1471 in the Tower

Some say he died out of grief after he learned of the death of his son at Tewkesbury; others believe he was murdered on the orders of King Edward IV. Archaeological study of Henry’s skull suggests he suffered a violent end, adding further credence to the latter belief.

Likely in an attempt to blacken his name, the Tudor polymath Thomas Moore claimed Richard III personally carried out the murder.

15. He formed the historical basis for one of Shakespeare’s greatest plays

Shakespeare’s trilogy of plays, ‘Henry VI’, is set during the lifetime of Henry; the Lancastrian monarch is a central character:

“Would I were dead, if God’s good will were so; For what is in this world but grief and woe?”

It was first performed on 3 March 1592.

16. (Bonus) Henry VI is very similar to the monarch who succeeded Alexander the Great

The similarities between Henry VI and Philip Arrhidaeus III, the man who was crowned king in the aftermath of Alexander the Great’s death, are staggering. Both suffered from mental impairments that hindered their ability to rule effectively; both were easily controlled by more powerful, ambitious figures.

Both oversaw the descent of their kingdom from its zenith into a bloody civil war; both were later murdered; both were the last of their royal dynasties to assume the kingship.

Philip III as pharaoh on a relief in Karnak