In the sixth and final episode of History Hit’s series exploring the remarkable collections of the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford, presenter Dan Snow joins Dr Liam McNamara, Keeper of Antiquities, to journey into Egypt’s distant past – long before the pyramids in The Ashmolean Up Close: Origins of Ancient Egypt. Through extraordinary artefacts from the Predynastic period (c. 4,000–3,100 BC), they uncover how early beliefs, artistry, and power structures along the Nile laid the essential foundations for the world we recognise as Ancient Egypt.

Sign up to watch

The early Nile: chaos and control

Over 6,000 years ago, Egypt was divided between the fertile Lower Egypt in the north and the arid Upper Egypt in the south. Yet, even in these scattered agricultural communities, a powerful culture was already forming. Regional chieftains were emerging as centralised rulers, laying the groundwork for future dynasties.

While the Ashmolean’s collection features fascinating grand pieces from this era like the large limestone statue of the Ancient Egyptian fertility god Min (c. 3,300 BC), the greatest insights into the world these early gods and rulers emerged from come from smaller, finely crafted objects. In the documentary, Dan is granted special access to rare collection items dating from 3,600 BC onwards – objects that were already considered ancient by the time of the great pharaohs.

Dan is shown a realistic pottery hippo as well as a model of a carved scorpion – objects that were symbols of power, reflecting the early Egyptians’ attempts to control chaos and dominate the natural landscape.

Status was also shown through the materials such objects were made from, highlighting the surprising far-reaching trade connections across the ancient world. Dan examines a small blue figurine made from Lapis lazuli, a material whose nearest source was Badakhshan in Afghanistan. This highlights the surprising, far-reaching trade connections across the ancient world long before the height of the New Kingdom.

Other objects, such as a ceremonial palette (a common item in high-status burials), were often carved and decorated with images associated with the rulers’ burgeoning power and prestige, including mythical creatures.

Dan Snow talks to Dr Liam MacNamara about the statue of the Ancient Egyptian fertility god, Min.

Image Credit: History Hit

King Scorpion’s colossal macehead

One of the Ashmolean’s most remarkable objects offers a rare glimpse into the emergence of Egypt’s earliest rulers and the first steps towards unification: a colossal macehead. Although maceheads were originally weapons, this stunning limestone fragment, discovered in Hierakonpolis (the capital of Upper Egypt), is thought to have been created solely for ceremonial purposes as a symbol of authority.

Liam explains to Dan that this colossal macehead belonged to ‘King Scorpion’ – an actual name, not a nickname. The ruler is pictured in the centre, deliberately shown on a much larger scale than all other figures, establishing his absolute authority.

Dan notes the striking familiarity of the image that looks very much like the depictions of Pharaohs such as Rameses, despite the fact this mace head was made way before the Pharaoh period. King Scorpion is wearing the white crown of Upper Egypt and the traditional royal costume, including a bull’s tail hanging behind his leg – a symbol of power and virility that persisted for millennia.

Unlike later pharaohs often depicted taking on military enemies, King Scorpion is shown holding a pick, seemingly breaking open an irrigation canal he is standing upon. Liam clarifies that the idea of controlling the annual inundation of the Nile was a vital royal prerogative, demonstrating that the ‘enemy’ here was the natural world, ensuring abundance for his people.

Despite living hundreds of years before the First Dynasty, Dan notes how the depiction of King Scorpion looks “like a Pharaoh in all but name.” Liam agrees, noting that he’s wearing exactly the same crown and costume as Rameses would thousands of years later – showing an extraordinary continuity that proves kingship was already fully formed in the Predynastic period, with King Scorpion being one of the earliest kings of Egypt. 

Close-up of King Scorpion’s macehead, showing the image of him in a similar way to the Pharaohs, and with hanging birds visible near the top, denoting ‘subject people’.

Image Credit: History Hit

The dawn of empire

The macehead holds further clues about the formation of the Egyptian state, including a row of little lapwing birds hanging from their necks at the top of the mace head. Liam explains that these birds in later hieroglyphs write the word for ‘subject people’. Since the King is wearing the crown of Upper Egypt (the South), these birds likely represent regions he has conquered.

Furthermore, Egyptologists speculate that the missing side of the macehead may have shown King Scorpion wearing the red crown of Lower Egypt. Dan notes that this would show “pretty much all of Egypt brought under one sovereign,” confirming the theory that this object may document the initial unification of Upper and Lower Egypt, suggesting King Scorpion might have been the Alfred the Great or Charlemagne of Ancient Egypt – the singular figure who brought together the disparate territories under one banner.

Nevertheless, as Liam points out, while “King Scorpion was clearly a very high status ruler, it’s important to know that there’s a long history of development before this.”

This pivotal moment marks the transformation into the Egypt we recognise, hundreds of years before the first dynasty or pyramid stood. “Long before the infamous Ancient Egypt of Pharaohs and pyramids, early communities along the Nile were laying the foundations of one of history’s most enduring cultures,” concludes Dan. “These objects in the Ashmolean’s collection capture a pivotal moment, the dawn of kingship, the roots of belief, and the early unification of a land that would one day become legendary.”

Join Dan Snow and Dr. Liam McNamara to journey back to the very origins of power in The Ashmolean Up Close: Origins of Ancient Egypt and discover more about the fascinating objects in the Ashmolean’s collection.

Sign up to watch

In a special film from 2022, Tutankhamun: A Century of Discovery, historian Dan Snow commemorated the centenary of that historic event, retracing the incredible story of dedication, despair, and dazzling triumph. Walking in the footsteps of Howard Carter, in the film Dan explores the key sites and exclusive archives that reveal the human story behind the golden mask.

The History Hit team gained unprecedented access to key locations associated with this legendary story: Highclere Castle (home of Lord Carnarvon), Tutankhamun’s Tomb in the Valley of the Kings, and the vast Howard Carter archives in Oxford, which hold the secrets of the dig. 

Sign up to watch

A needle in a haystack

To understand the discovery, Dan first travels to the Valley of the Kings, the deep gorge in the desert where the pharaohs sought their ultimate rest. Guarded by pyramid-like peaks, this was the land of the dead, set directly across the Nile and close to Thebes (modern-day Luxor).

The film explores the profound commitment of Howard Carter, whose ambition was so singular he built a functional, almost hermitic house as close to the Valley of the Kings as possible. Dan visits the meticulously conserved house and speaks with architectural historian Dr Nicholas Warner, revealing Carter’s intense focus. For 12 agonising years, Carter found nothing. As Dr Warner reveals, 1922 was meant to be the final season funded by his great sponsor, Lord Carnarvon. Carter was completely convinced a missing tomb belonging to the obscure New Kingdom pharaoh Tutankhamun was there, but he needed to be convincing enough to keep his patron on board – a true needle-in-a-haystack quest.

Dan also travels to Highclere Castle in Hampshire, Lord Carnarvon’s home, to meet Fiona, the Countess of Carnarvon. She discusses the immense faith Carnarvon placed in Carter – a quest that cost the equivalent of £20 million in modern terms – and the shared love of Egyptology that bound the two men together.

Howard Carter, Lord Carnarvon and his daughter Lady Evelyn Herbert at the steps leading to the newly discovered tomb of Tutankhamen, November 1922

Image Credit: Harry Burton (Photographer), Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

The archive

The most intimate details of the discovery are held not in Egypt, but in Oxford. Dan travels to the Bodleian Weston Library to explore the exhibition ‘Tutankhamun – Excavating the Archives’, home to Howard Carter’s extensive records.

Dan gets up close to Carter’s first hurried journal entry: “First steps of Tomb Found.” This led to a detailed note: “Discovered tomb under tomb of Ramses VI… found seals intact.” This meant the tomb was likely an undisturbed Egyptian royal resting place. Carter was forced to wait for his financier, Carnarvon, to sail from England before breaching the final seal.

The iconic moment occurred on 26 November 1922. Dan reads Carter’s account from his excavation journal, reliving the moment the archaeologist first gazed into the dark vault. When Carnarvon asked what he saw, Carter famously replied: “It is wonderful.”

Along with curator Daniela Rosenow at the Griffith Institute, Dan also examines the original glass plate negatives. These photos are extraordinary, capturing now-familiar objects still covered in the linen and flowers from the 19-year-old pharaoh’s funeral in 1323 BC, a far more immediate and human image than the conserved treasures we see today.

Howard Carter examining the innermost coffin of Tutankhamun

Image Credit: Exclusive to The Times, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

The young king

Later in the programme, Dan travels into Tutankhamun’s tomb itself, describing it as “one of the most exciting places on earth.” Egyptologist Aliaa Ismail explains a profound irony: Tutankhamun died very young, so his tomb’s walls were left plain in the antechamber, reflecting the custom that “the longer you live, the more impressive your tomb.”

Yet, behind the wall lay the sealed and untouched burial chamber, revealing riches beyond measure. The photographs held in Oxford show what happened in the final moments of the burial: Carter’s notes detail how the team had to chop off part of the pharaoh’s feet to fit the coffin into the sarcophagus – a startling reminder of the human element in an otherwise divine ritual.

To mark the centenary, a local Oxford florist recreated one of the floral garlands found on Tutankhamun’s mummy. Dan gets a first glimpse of this meticulous recreation, which, as Professor Richard Parkinson explains, helps humanise the story. As Richard points out, the centenary is not just about gold, but “about the death of a young man.”

Immortality and legacy

Dan concludes the film back in Cairo, by being up close with Tutankhamun’s golden death mask, which he describes as “one of the most famous archaeological treasures ever recovered”: He explores some of the original treasures with conservator Eid Mertah, who uses modern techniques to understand how the treasures were made.

The legacy of Tutankhamun is a story of dedication, risk, and ultimate triumph. Howard Carter’s single-minded pursuit, Lord Carnarvon’s unwavering financial faith, and the detailed record-keeping in Oxford have ensured the pharaoh’s memory lives on. As Dan concludes, while Tutankhamun didn’t get to “rest” in the Valley of the Kings, he achieved a different form of immortality: his legacy is an inspiration for all generations.

Join Dan Snow as he walks in the footsteps of Howard Carter to relive the greatest archaeological discovery of all time in Tutankhamun: A Century of Discovery.

Sign up to watch

Discover more of History Hit’s Egyptology collection

In the latest episode of History Hit’s “Royal Sex” podcast mini-series, Dr Kate Lister is joined by renowned archaeologist and Egyptologist Dr Sarah Parcak to explore why. Prepare to challenge long-held myths and uncover the fascinating realities of one of history’s most powerful and controversial female rulers.

Subscribe to Betwixt The Sheets

A strategic mind beyond her years

When people think of Egypt, two things often come to mind: Cleopatra and pyramids. Yet, as Dr Sarah Parcak reveals, understanding Cleopatra’s true brilliance requires looking beyond popular imagery. Dr Parcak explains that Cleopatra “fully understood who she was and the moment Egypt was in when the Romans invaded… and she knew what she had to do to make Egypt’s memory survive”. This last ruler of Ancient Egypt enacted a multi-thousand-year plan for her nation’s legacy, and “she nailed it”.

Cleopatra was no mere seductress; she was an extraordinary politician, exceptionally intelligent, and fluent in as many as 8 or 9 languages (indeed she was the only Ptolemaic ruler known to have learned the Egyptian language). Deeply versed in mathematics and philosophy, her “piercing intelligence” and extraordinary presence allowed her to command conversations on complex subjects. 

In the podcast you’ll discover how Cleopatra harnessed not just her intellect, but also her understanding of sexuality and fertility, deeply connected to Egyptian religion, to consolidate her immense power.

The unlikely path to Pharaoh

Was Cleopatra destined to be Pharaoh? Not necessarily – the throne was expected to pass to one of her brothers. However, even at a young age, Cleopatra displayed an “extraordinary aptitude and intelligence” says Dr Parcak, demonstrating a finesse for politics that her father, Ptolemy XII recognised and nurtured. Her experience in Rome as a child, strategically arranged by her father, also proved crucial for navigating international power dynamics and maintaining Egypt’s independence later in life.

Eventually, she was crowned co-regent with her brother, Ptolemy XIII. Following a civil war that erupted from their falling-out, he died in the Battle of the Nile. She later co-ruled with her other brother Ptolemy XIV, who subsequently died under mysterious circumstances. Ultimately, her sheer force of will ensured she effectively reigned alone.

Profile view of the Berlin Cleopatra (left); The Chiaramonti Caesar bust, a posthumous portrait in marble, 44–30 BC (right)

Image Credit: © José Luiz Bernardes Ribeiro (left); Unknown author, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons (right)

Debunking myths

Cleopatra is inextricably linked to the myth of sex, particularly with Julius Caesar and Mark Antony. Yet, the podcast debunks many assumptions. You’ll hear why Cleopatra was almost certainly a virgin before meeting Caesar, despite rampant rumours.

Her famously dramatic encounter with Julius Caesar, far from a mere seduction, was a strategic unveiling and, according to Dr Parcak, a profound “meeting of minds” between two brilliant political strategists. Their relationship quickly deepened, leading to love and the birth of their son. This “stunning, brilliant, younger woman” who could converse with him on every subject captivated Caesar, playing to his ego and cementing an alliance beneficial to Rome. 

The Roman reaction to Cleopatra’s presence in Rome was mixed; some branded her a “whore”, while others were utterly captivated, inspiring an explosion in the cult of Isis. After Caesar’s assassination, Cleopatra swiftly returned to Egypt, later initiating her famous relationship with Mark Antony. Though often portrayed as a wild fling, their bond was enduring and resulted in three children. Dr Parcak stresses that Cleopatra had very few documented lovers, challenging the notion of promiscuity perpetuated by Roman propaganda, which conveniently targeted this brazen, powerful woman.

The Death of Cleopatra by Jean-André Rixens.

Image Credit: Public Domain

Tragedy and enduring legacy

In the podcast, Dr Parcak explains how Cleopatra’s reign faced immense challenges, including widespread drought and famine (as well as from surprising sources) that may have influenced the lead-up to crucial battles such as the Battle of Actium. When Rome inevitably sought to absorb Egypt, and after Mark Antony’s death, Cleopatra made her ultimate, iconic choice, avoiding public humiliation by Octavian in Roman triumph.

Her death, often depicted as an asp bite, was likely a swift, self-administered poison – a decision reflecting her innate understanding of her image and how it would secure Egypt’s lasting memory as Rome absorbed her kingdom.

The podcast explores how, like other powerful queens including Catherine the Great and Marie Antoinette, Cleopatra became a victim of misogynistic narratives, her power often sexualised to discredit her. Yet, Dr Parcak argues Cleopatra deliberately curated her image, using her appearance not for promiscuity, but to embody Egypt’s power and continuity.

Join Dr Kate Lister and Dr Sarah Parcak on Royal Sex: Cleopatra to navigate the intricate world of rumour, power, and passion that defined one of history’s most compelling rulers to uncover the true legacy of Cleopatra.

Subscribe to Betwixt The Sheets

In this episode of the podcast series The Ancients, Dr.Chris Naunton joins Tristan Hughes to put forward several theories about the ongoing mystery of the whereabouts of Cleopatra’s lost burial place. 

Cleopatra is one of Ancient Egypt’s most famous figures. Pharaoh in her own right, she ruled Ptolemaic Egypt for 21 years until her death by suicide in 30BC, when Egypt came under the control of Rome. One of the mysteries that plagues ancient historians and archaeologists is the location of Cleopatra’s tomb, which it’s believed will help provide a valuable window into Cleopatra’s life and death.

There are tiny clues which hint at the tomb’s location: accounts of the period say that Cleopatra was building a monument for herself and her lover Mark Antony rather than being buried in the mausoleum which housed many of the Ptolemies. As ruler of Egypt, a building project like this would have been vast and the tomb itself would have been lavishly appointed.

Some accounts of Cleopatra’s life suggest that the building was completed by 30BC – and in fact, having been chased to Alexandria by Octavian, she effectively took refuge in her mausoleum for a time in fear for her life. In this particular version, the mausoleum is described as having multiple floors, with windows or doors in an upper level which allowed Cleopatra to communicate with those on the ground outside.

Where in Alexandria might it have been?

Alexandria was hit by an earthquake in the 4th century AD: much of the ancient city was partially destroyed and submerged as the sea bed dropped several metres. It’s quite likely that Cleopatra’s tomb was in this part of the city, but extensive underwater archaeological research hasn’t provided any hard evidence – yet.

Cleopatra had closely associated herself with the goddess Isis in her lifetime and one history suggests that her mausoleum was located close to one of Alexandria’s Temples of Isis.

Was she actually buried in her mausoleum?

Some historians have hypothesised that Cleopatra wasn’t buried in Alexandria at all. She committed suicide, probably partly in an attempt to avoid be captured and paraded humiliatingly through the streets of Rome by Octavian.

Even having avoided humiliation in life though, many believe it was unlikely Octavian would have permitted her the burial she wanted. One theory is that Cleopatra’s handmaidens smuggled her body out of the city to Taposiris Magna, a few kilometres west by the coast.

Another theory is that she is buried in an unmarked, rock cut grave in a Macedonian-Egyptian cemetery. However, the general consensus believes Alexandria is still the most likely site: and the quest to find her tomb remains.

Learn more about the theories of Cleopatra’s burial place and the ongoing attempts to find them in The Lost Tomb of Cleopatra on The Ancients by History Hit.

However, the relationship between the ancient Egyptians and animals was not that straightforward. On the whole animals were seen as practical and all had a function within. Even pets which included cats, dogs and monkeys did not live the pampered lifestyle of modern pets, but were considered a useful addition to the household.

Were cats kept as pets in ancient Egypt?

Cats were homed in order to keep rats, mice and snakes away from the home and the grain storage and dogs were used to aid with the hunting of small prey in the desert and the marshes. Even cats are depicted on hunting expeditions in the marshes where it is thought they were used to flush out the birds from the reeds.

An Egyptian fowling scene showing how the ancient Egyptians used cats for hunting, depicted on the Tomb of Nebamun.

Whilst pets did have a practical function there is enough evidence to show some were also greatly loved. For example in the tomb of Ipuy from Deir el Medina (1293-1185 BCE) a pet cat is depicted wearing a silver earring (which was more valuable than gold), and one of her kittens was playing with the sleeve of its owner’s tunic.

Despite obvious affection between some owners and their pets only one cat name is known from the archaeological record – The Pleasant One. Most cats were simply called Miw – which was the ancient Egyptian word for cat.

The confusion comes about when considering the ancient Egyptian goddess Bastet, the cat goddess which has led some to believe the Egyptians worshipped all cats. This is not the case – the domestic house cat was not worshipped any more than they are today. To understand this disparity we need to look at the nature of the gods.

Nature of the gods

Many Egyptian deities, were represented at times with animal heads or completely in animal form. For example Khepri, was sometimes presented with a beetle for a head, Bastet with a cat head, Sekhmet with a lioness head, Hathor with a cow’s head or simply cow ears and Horus with a falcon head.

However, they were all also presented at other times in full human form.

When a deity was depicted with the head of an animal this represented that they were displaying the characteristics or behaviour of that animal, at that time.

So for example, Khepri with his beetle head represents the sun at dawn. This is based on the observation of the dung beetle. The beetle lay its eggs in a ball of dung which it would then roll along the ground.

Eventually the freshly hatched beetles emerged from the dung. This action was likened to the sun emerging over the horizon at dawn and from it all new life emerged – so technically little to do with beetles per se.

The Egyptian God Horus.

So through observations of nature, certain characteristics were attributed to the gods and this was represented by the image of the animal. There were few taboos on treatment or slaughter of the animals connected with the gods.

As a parallel, in modern India the cow is worshipped and the nation as a whole do not eat beef. In ancient Egypt however, although the cow was sacred to Hathor it did not mean the goddess was present in every cow, and therefore beef was eaten by whoever could afford it.

When leaving votive offerings to deities, it was common to leave a bronze statue of the animal associated with them as a visual reminder of the characteristics being appealed to. However, bronze was an expensive commodity, and it became easier to purchase an animal mummy at the temple to dedicate to the god.

As millions of animal mummies have been discovered of cats (sacred to Bastet), crocodiles (sacred to Sobek) and ibis (sacred to Thoth) it has led to the misconception that they were a nation of animal lovers mummifying their deceased pets.

To understand the relationship between the gods and the animals, let’s turn to the cults of Sobek and Bastet.

Sobek

Relief from the Temple of Kom Ombo showing Sobek with typical attributes of kingship, including a was-sceptre and royal kilt. (Credit: Hedwig Storch / CC).

Sobek, the crocodile god was the son of the goddess Neith, and a symbol of the king’s power and might, a water and fertility deity, and later a primordial and creator god.

The Nile Crocodile (crocodylus niloticus) lived in abundance within the Egyptian Nile and can grow up to six metres in length. Even in the modern world they are responsible for more human deaths on the Nile than any other creature.

As the ancient Egyptians relied on the Nile for water, food, transportation and laundry, crocodiles were a very real threat and part of the worship of Sobek was borne out of self-preservation.

Sobek was worshipped from the Pre-Dynastic Period (pre-3150 BCE) and there were numerous shrines around Egypt dedicated to Sobek although predominantly located in the Faiyum with the main temple at Kom Ombo situated between Aswan and Edfu in the south of Egypt.

There is plenty of evidence from the New Kingdom (1570-1070 BCE) onwards indicating that crocodiles were specifically bred within the temples. At Kom Ombo, for example there was a small lake where crocodiles were bred.

These crocodiles were not however, bred with the purpose of leading pampered lives but for slaughter so they could be mummified and presented to the god as votive offerings.

Thousands of crocodile mummies have been discovered in special cemeteries at Tebtunis, Hawara, Lahun, Thebes and Medinet Nahas, which include adult and juvenile crocodiles as well as unhatched eggs.

Mummified crocodiles, in the Crocodile Museum (Credit: JMCC1 / CC).

Herodotus, writing in the fifth century BC records that people at Lake Moeris in the Faiyum, fed the crocodiles raised there, and adorned them with bracelets and earrings as a means of honouring Sobek.

The reverence of the Nile Crocodile would not have extended to wild ones along the river bank and there would be no taboo about killing one and there are tomb images of fishermen killing hippopotami (associated with the goddess Taweret) and crocodiles.

Once the temple crocodiles died or were slaughtered they were mummified and buried in clay coffins. Some of these can still be viewed in the chapel of Hathor at Kom Ombo.

Bastet

Crocodiles were not the only animal mummies given as votive offerings to the gods. Thousands of cat mummies with intricate designs in the bandages have been found at cemeteries at Bubastis and Saqqara.

These were dedicated to the cat goddess Bastet. In the context of Egyptian history the cult of Bastet was relatively new, dating to approximately 1000 BCE. Her cult developed from that of the lioness goddess Sekhmet although her iconography is far older.

Bastet is the daughter of the sun-god Ra and is a peaceful, benign version of the lioness Sekhmet. Bastet is often shown with kittens, as her main role is as a protective mother.

The cult centre for Bastet was at Bubastis (Tell Basta) in the north of Egypt which was prominent in the twenty-second and twenty-third dynasties (945-715 BCE). When Herodotus was in Egypt he commented that hundreds of thousands of pilgrims came to the site to pay their respects to the goddess.

He also stated that at this time people would also take the remains of their own cats to be dedicated to the goddess, whilst going through a traditional mourning period which included shaving their eyebrows.

This was certainly not a traditional practice for cat owners in the earlier years of Egyptian history.

Pilgrims to the cult centre of Bastet dedicated a cat mummy to the goddess with the hope she would answer their prayers. These mummies were sold by the priests at the temple who ran a breeding programme similar to that of Sobek, providing cats for slaughter.

Mummy contents

A priestess offers gifts of food and milk to the spirit of a cat. On an altar stands the mummy of the deceased, and the tomb is decorated with frescoes, urns of fresh flowers, lotus blossoms, and statuettes. The priestess kneels as she wafts incense smoke toward the altar. In the background, a statue of Sekhmet or Bastet guards the entrance to the tomb (Credit: John Reinhard Weguelin / Domain).

Producing mummies to be dedicated to Sobek and Bastet was a lucrative business and it was clear that demand may have outstripped supply. A number of the cat and crocodile mummies have been CT scanned or x-rayed identifying the contents and the mode of death of the animal.

Many of the cat mummies contain the remains of very young kittens who were strangled or had their necks broken. They were clearly bred for slaughter to provide the mummies for the pilgrims.

A number of the mummies, however, show that they were not the remains of full cats but a combination of packing material and cat body parts moulded into the shape of a mummy.

Similar results have been discovered when crocodile mummies have been scanned or x-rayed showing some were made up of reeds, mud and body parts moulded into the correct shape.

Could these ‘fake’ animal mummies be the work of unscrupulous priests, getting rich from the pilgrims to the religious sites or was the intention and provenance of the mummy as coming from the temple more important than the contents?

What is apparent however, is that this practice of slaughtering young animals in order to sell their mummies to pilgrims is more a business activity than animal worship. There are very mixed messages coming from this practice.

Cat mummy-MAHG 23437‎ (Credit: anonymous / CC).

On one hand the animals were revered for their characteristics and behaviour which was considered admiral and associated with a deity. However, on the other hand slaughtering kittens and removing crocodile eggs for sale shows a very practical approach to the animal kingdom.

There are clearly two approaches to the animal world – the religious and the domestic approach. People who cared for animals in the home environment possibly cared for their animals as much as we do today even though they also served a practical purpose.

However, the religious approach is two-fold – the characteristics of certain animals were revered and admired but the innumerable animals raised for the votive cult were not revered and viewed simply as a commodity.

Dr Charlotte Booth is a British archaeologist and writer on Ancient Egypt. She has written several works and has also featured on various history television programmes. Her latest book, How to Survive in Ancient Egypt, will be published on 31 March by Pen and Sword Publishing.

Featured image: Sarcophagus of Prince Thutmose’s cat (Credit: Larazoni / CC).

Here are 10 facts about Cleopatra, the legendary Queen of the Nile.

1. She was the last ruler of the Ptolemaic dynasty

Although she was born in Egypt, Cleopatra was not Egyptian. Her origins trace back to the Ptolemaic dynasty, a Macedonian Greek royal family.

She was a descendant of Ptolemy I ‘Soter’, a general and friend of Alexander the Great. The Ptolemies were the last dynasty to rule Egypt, from 305 to 30 BC.

After her father Ptolemy XII’s death in 51 BC, Cleopatra became co-regent of Egypt alongside her brother Ptolemy XIII.

Bust of Cleopatra VII – Altes Museum – Berlin

Image Credit: © José Luiz Bernardes Ribeiro

2. She was highly intelligent and well educated

Medieval Arab texts praise Cleopatra for her accomplishments as a mathematician, chemist and philosopher. She was said to have written scientific books and, in the words of the historian Al-Masudi:

She was a sage, a philosopher, who elevated the ranks of scholars and enjoyed their company.

She was also multilingual – historical accounts report her speaking between 5 and 9 languages, including her native Greek, Egyptian, Arabic and Hebrew.

3. Cleopatra married two of her brothers

Cleopatra was married to her brother and co-ruler Ptolemy XIII, who was 10 years old at the time (she was 18). In 48 BC, Ptolemy tried to depose his sister, forcing her to flee to Syria and Egypt.

Upon Ptolemy XIII’s death after being defeated by her Roman-Egyptian armies, Cleopatra married his younger brother Ptolemy XIV. She was 22; he was 12. During their marriage Cleopatra continued to live with Caesar privately and act as his mistress.

She married Mark Antony in 32 BC. Following Antony’s surrender and suicide after being defeated by Octavian, Cleopatra was captured by his army.

The legend goes that Cleopatra had an asp smuggled into her room and allowed it to bite her, poisoning and killing her.

4. Her beauty was the product of Roman propaganda

Contrary to modern portrayals from Elizabeth Taylor and Vivien Leigh, there is no evidence among ancient historians that Cleopatra was a great beauty.

Contemporary visual sources show Cleopatra with a large pointed nose, narrow lips and sharp, jutting chin.

According to Plutarch:

Her actual beauty…was not so remarkable that none could be compared with her.

Her reputation as a dangerous and seductive temptress was in fact the creation of her enemy Octavian. Roman historians portrayed her as a harlot who used sex to bewitch powerful men into giving her power.

5. She used her image as a political tool

Cleopatra believed herself to be a living goddess and was keenly aware of the relationship between image and power. Historian John Fletcher described her as “a mistress of disguise and costume.”

She would appear dressed as the goddess Isis at ceremonial events, and surrounded herself with luxury.

6. She was a popular pharaoh

Contemporary Egyptian sources suggest that Cleopatra was loved among her people.

Unlike her Ptolemaic forebears – who spoke Greek and observed Greek customs – Cleopatra identified as a truly Egyptian pharaoh.

She learned the Egyptian language and commissioned portraits of herself in the traditional Egyptian style.

Profile view of the Berlin Cleopatra (left); The Chiaramonti Caesar bust, a posthumous portrait in marble, 44–30 BC (right)

Image Credit: © José Luiz Bernardes Ribeiro (left); Unknown author, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons (right)

7. She was a strong and successful leader

Under her rule, Egypt was the richest nation in the Mediterranean and the last to remain independent from the rapidly expanding Roman Empire.

Cleopatra built up the Egyptian economy, and used trade with Arab nations to bolster her country’s status as a world power.

8. Her lovers were also her political allies

Cleopatra’s relationships with Julius Caesar and Mark Antony were as much military alliances as romantic liaisons.

At the time of her meeting with Caesar, Cleopatra was in exile – cast out by her brother. Caesar was to arbitrate a peace conference between the warring siblings.

Cleopatra persuaded her servant to wrap her in a carpet and present her to the Roman general. In her best finery, she begged Caesar for his help to regain the throne.

By all accounts she and Mark Antony were truly in love. But by allying herself with Octavian’s rival, she helped defend Egypt from becoming a vassal of Rome.

9. She was in Rome when Caesar was killed

Cleopatra was living in Rome as Caesar’s mistress at the time of his violent death in 44 BC. His assassination put her own life in danger, and she fled with their young son across the river Tiber.

A Roman painting in the House of Marcus Fabius Rufus at Pompeii, Italy, depicting Cleopatra as Venus Genetrix and her son Caesarion as a cupid

Image Credit: Ancient Roman painter(s) from Pompeii, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Upon her return to Egypt, Cleopatra immediately took steps to consolidate her rule. She had her brother Ptolemy XIV poisoned with aconite and replaced him with her son, Ptolemy XV ‘Caesarion’.

10. She had four children

Cleopatra had one son with Julius Caesar, who she named Caesarion – ‘little Caesar’. After her suicide, Caesarion was killed under orders by the Roman emperor Augustus.

Cleopatra had three children with Mark Antony: Ptolemy ‘Philadelphus’ and twins Cleopatra ‘Selene’ and Alexander ‘Helios’.

None of her descendants lived to inherit Egypt.

Significant questions about Nefertiti still remain. For example, where was she from? Where is her tomb? Despite these enduring uncertainties, Nefertiti remains one of the most iconic figures of ancient Egypt. Today, a famous limestone bust of Nefertiti is a hugely popular attraction at the Neues Museum in Berlin, and as such has helped immortalise the legacy of the extraordinary ruler.

So, who was Queen Nefertiti?

1. It is unclear where Nefertiti came from

Nefertiti’s parentage is unknown. However, her name is Egyptian and translates to ‘A Beautiful Woman Has Come’, meaning that some Egyptologists believe she was a princess from Mitanni (Syria). However, there is also evidence to suggest that she was the Egyptian-born daughter of the high court official Ay, brother of Akhenaton’s mother, Tiy.

2. She was probably married aged 15

It is unclear when Nefertiti married Amenhotep III’s son, the future pharaoh Amenhotep IV. However, it is believed that she was 15 when she was married. The couple went on to rule together from 1353 to 1336 BC. Reliefs depict Nefertiti and Amenhotep IV as inseparable and on equal footing, riding chariots together and even kissing in public. By all accounts, the couple had a genuine romantic connection which was very unusual for ancient pharaohs and their wives.

Akhenaten (Amenhotep IV) and Nefertiti. Louvre Museum, Paris

Image Credit: Rama, CC BY-SA 3.0 FR , via Wikimedia Commons

3. Nefertiti had at least 6 daughters

Nefertiti and Akhenaten are known to have had at least 6 daughters together – the first three being born at Thebes, and the younger three being born at Akhetaton (Amarna). Two of Nefertiti’s daughters became queen of Egypt. At one time, it was theorised that Nefertiti was Tutankhamun’s mother; however, a genetic study on unearthed mummies has since indicated that she was not.

4. Nefertiti and her husband enacted a religious revolution

Nefertiti and the pharaoh played a large part in establishing the Aten cult, a religious mythology which defined the sun god, Aten, as the most important god and the only one to be worshipped in Egypt’s polytheistic canon. Amenhotep IV changed his name to Akhenaten and Nefertiti to ‘Neferneferuaten-Nefertiti’, meaning ‘beautiful are the beauties of Aten, a beautiful woman has come’, to honour the god. Nefertiti and Akhenaten were probably also priests.

The family lived in a city called Akhetaton (now known as el-Amarna) meant to honour their new god. There were several open-air temples in the city, and the palace stood in the middle.

5. Nefertiti was regarded as a living fertility goddess

Nefertiti’s sexuality, which was emphasised by her exaggeratedly ‘feminine’ body shape and fine linen garments, as well as her six daughters being emblems of her fertility, indicate that she was considered to be a living fertility goddess. Artistic depictions of Nefertiti as a highly sexualised figure support this.

6. Nefertiti may have co-ruled with her husband

Based upon reliefs and statues, some historians believe that Nefertiti may have acted as queen regnant, her husband’s co-ruler rather than his consort, after he had reigned for 12 years. Her husband went to great lengths to have her depicted as an equal, and Nefertiti is often depicted as wearing the pharaoh’s crown or smiting enemies in battle. However there is no written evidence to confirm her political status.

Akhenaten (left), Nefertiti (right) and their daughters before the god Aten.

Image Credit: Personal picture of Gérard Ducher., CC BY-SA 2.5 , via Wikimedia Commons

7. Nefertiti ruled over ancient Egypt’s wealthiest period

Nefertiti and Akhenaten ruled over what was quite possibly the wealthiest period in ancient Egyptian history. During their reign, the new capital Amarna also achieved an artistic boom which was distinct from any other period in Egypt. The style showed movement and figures of more exaggerated proportions with elongated hands and feet, while depictions of Akhenaten assign him feminine attributes such as prominent breasts and wide hips.

8. It is unclear how Nefertiti died

Before 2012, it was believed that Nefertiti vanished from the historical record in the 12th year of Akhenaten’s reign. It was suggested that she might have died from injury, a plague or a natural cause. However, in 2012, an inscription from year 16 of Akhenaten’s reign was discovered that bore Nefertiti’s name and demonstrated that she was still alive. Nonetheless, the circumstances of her death remain unknown.

9. The location of Nefertiti’s tomb remains a mystery

Nefertiti’s body has never been discovered. If she had died at Amarna, she would have been buried in the Amarna royal tomb; however, no body has been found. Speculation that she was one of the bodies recovered in the Valley of the Kings also later proved to be unfounded.

Front and side view of the bust of Nefertiti

Image Credit: Jesús Gorriti, CC BY-SA 2.0 , via Wikimedia Commons (left) / Gunnar Bach Pedersen, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons (right)

In 2015, British archaeologist Nicholas Reeves discovered that there were some small markings in Tutankhamun’s tomb that could indicate a hidden doorway. He theorised that it could be Nefertiti’s tomb. However, radar scans showed that there were no chambers.

10. Nefertiti’s bust is one of the most copied works of art in history

The bust of Nefertiti is one of the most copied works of ancient Egypt. It is widely thought to have been made in around 1345 BC by the sculptor Thutmose, since it was discovered in his workshop in 1912 by a German archaeological group. The bust went on display at the Neues Museum in the 1920s and immediately attracted international attention. Today, it is considered to be one of the most beautiful depictions of a female figure from the ancient world.

History of Abu Mena

The site was built in honour of early Christian martyr, Saint Menas of Alexandria, who died in 296 AD. Various 5th-century accounts give slightly different versions of his burial and the subsequent founding of his church, but essentially his body was taken from Alexandria on a camel, which was led into the desert beyond Lake Mareotis. At some point, the camel refused to walk any further – this was taken as a sign of divine will, and the body’s attendants buried it on that spot.

The tomb’s location was then thought to be forgotten until its miraculous rediscovery by a local shepherd, who is said to have seen a sheep healed by the site’s water and then used the water and dust from the tomb to heal sick people brought to him. Word of the shepherd’s healing powers spread rapidly, and the synaxarium (a book that includes short accounts on the lives of the saints) describes Constantine I sending his sick daughter to the shepherd to be cured. The book credits her with finding Menas’ body, after which Constantine ordered the construction of a church at the site.

By the late 4th century, it became a major pilgrimage destination for Christians. Small terracotta ‘Menas flasks’ were sold to pilgrims as containers for holy water, and are found widely around the Western Mediterranean, dating roughly from the century and a half before the Muslim conquest. Roman Emperor Arcadius ordered a major expansion of the facilities, and by the end of Late Antiquity, Abu Mena had become the leading pilgrimage site in Egypt, yet was destroyed during the Muslim conquests of the mid-7th century.

Abu Mena today

The site was first excavated from 1905-1907. There are very few standing remains, but the foundations of most major buildings, such as the large basilica church, are easily discernible as well as monastic buildings, a baptistery and Roman baths. The highlight is the stunning underground tomb of Saint Menas, adorned with beautiful frescoes. More recent excavations in 1998 uncovered a large dormitory for poor pilgrims, a complex to the south of the great basilica (likely the abbot’s residence) and a complex of wine presses, including underground storage rooms, dating to the 6th/7th centuries.

However, excessive groundwater extraction has caused land subsidence, meaning the site is at risk of irreparable damage. A number of the site’s buildings have collapsed or are now unstable, and the site was added to the List of World Heritage Danger in 2001. Since then, efforts have been made to preserve and stabilise Abu Mena, including the placing of sand in endangered buildings and closing them off to the public.

Getting to Abu Mena

Abu Mena is located about 31 miles southwest of Alexandria, near New Borg El Arab city.

However, the history and origins of the mighty structure are still debated. A focal point of debate amongst historians and archaeologists centres on the sphinx’s nose – or the lack of it. It is unclear when it disappeared, who removed it and why. A now disproven myth pointed blame at Napoleon Bonaparte’s armies, while some theorists credit Muhammad Sa’im al-Dahr with the removal of the sphinx’s nose.

So, who broke the Great Spinx’s nose, and why?

Sphinxes are prominent in Egyptian mythology

A sphinx (also spelled sphynx) is a prominent mythological figure in Asian, Greek and Egyptian mythology which normally has the body of a lion and head of a human.

In ancient Egypt, the sphinx was regarded as a spiritual guardian and was most commonly depicted as male and wearing a pharaoh headdress, as is the case with the Great Sphinx.

The creature was thus often included in temple and tomb complexes, such as Sphinx Alley in Upper Egypt, a two-mile avenue lined with sphinx statues that connects the Luxor and Karnak temples.

It was created by Pharaoh Khafre

The Great Sphinx of Giza, partially excavated, with two pyramids in the background. Albumen print. Dates between 1867 and 1899 created/published. Most probably in De l’Égypte et de la Nubie, 1878.

Historians generally agree that the Great Sphinx was built for the Pharaoh Khafre sometime between 2603-2578 BC. Hieroglyphic texts tell us that Khafre’s father, Pharaoh Khufu, built the Great Pyramid. Khafre went on to construct his own slightly smaller pyramid along with an elaborate complex that includes the Great Sphinx.

Residue of red, yellow and blue pigments suggests that the Sphinx was once brightly painted. Originally cut from the bedrock, today the Sphinx’s original shape has been restored with layers of limestone.

The nose was removed deliberately

Upon examination, the Sphinx’s face shows that rods or chisels were hammered into the nose area which were then used to pry it off. The 1-metre wide nose has still never been found.

There are a number of folk tales that account for what happened to the Sphinx’s nose. The most popular myth regarding the Sphinx’s nose is that it was broken by cannonballs fired by Napoleon Bonaparte’s army, who were in Giza during one of the military battles of the French campaign in Egypt in 1798.

However, a mid-18th century drawing of the Sphinx by Danish Naval Captain and explorer Frederic Louis Norden depicts the statue without a nose. Since this predates Napoleon’s army, it disproves the folk tale.

The Great Sphinx of Giza in Frederic Louis Norden’s, Voyage d’Égypte et de Nubie (1755).

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons

The 15th-century Arab historian al-Maqrīzī described the loss of the nose to Muhammad Sa’im al-Dahr, a Sufi Muslim from the khanqah of Sa’id al-Su’ada. The story goes that in 1378, Sa’im al-Dahr found the local peasants making offerings to the Sphinx for a good harvest, so defaced it as an act of iconoclasm.

The same historian also said that local people believed that the increased sand covering the Giza Plateau was celestial revenge for the act of defacement. It was also later believed by some that the Alexandrian Crusade of 1365 was punishment for the nose being broken off.

In spite of the conjecture surrounding the Sphinx’s nose, one fact is certain. Archaeologist Mark Lehner performed an archaeological study on the Sphinx and concluded that its nose was intentionally broken with instruments sometime between the 3rd and 10th centuries AD.

The nose isn’t the only missing part of the Sphinx

It is thought that a ceremonial pharaonic beard was attached to the Sphinx sometime after it was originally constructed. It is thought to have been added later because it didn’t damage the core infrastructure of the Sphinx when it fell off.

There are also a number of holes in the Sphinx, including at the top of its head, and many New Kingdom stelae depict the Sphinx wearing a crown. As a result, it has been theorised that the hole could have been the anchoring point for it.

Here are 5 important female rulers throughout the history of ancient Egypt.

1. Merneith (c. 3200-2900 BC)

Historical records show that Merneith was a queen consort and regent – the wife of Djet and mother of Den, the pharaoh. However it is believed that she may have also been a ruler in her own right.

Her tomb bears a striking resemblance to those of Egyptian pharaohs from the First Dynasty and contains artefacts usually reserved for kings – a large underground chamber, graves for servants, and sacrificial offerings.

Her name was also included in a list of early pharaohs on a seal in Den’s tomb, which has led historians to believe that she was a pharaoh. If true, then Merneith would be the first female pharaoh and queen regnant in recorded history.

2. Sobekneferu (r. 1806–1802 BC)

Sobekneferu was the first female pharaoh of ancient Egypt confirmed by evidence. She was the last ruler of the 12th Dynasty, following the death of her brother Amenemhat IV. She was the first monarch named after the crocodile god Sobek, symbol of pharaonic might.

Archaeologists have found images that refer to her as Female Horus, King of Upper and Lower Egypt, and Daughter of Re.

Sobekneferu ruled only briefly – three years and 10 months – and at a time of civil unrest and then a period of anarchy. During her reign, she built temples at the northern sites Tell Dab’a and Herakleopolis, and also completed her father’s pyramid complex at Hawara.

She is said to have created her own pyramid at Mazghuna near Dahshur, but no trace of her burial has been found. Sobekneferu’s innovations inspired the next female pharaoh, Hatshepsut, who went on to adopt the same kingly regalia and false beard.

3. Hatshepsut (r. 1578-1478 BC)

Statue of Hatshepsut. Image credit: Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Image Credit: Metropolitan Museum of Art, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons

The second historically confirmed female pharaoh, Hatshepsut became queen of Egypt at the age of 12 upon marrying her half-brother Thutmose II. She then became regent to her infant stepson Thutmose III, following the death of her husband. Less than 7 years into her regency, Hatshepsut assumed the full powers and title of a pharaoh.

To consolidate her power, Hatshepsut ordered all official representations of her to include all the traditional regalia and symbols of the pharaoh – the Khat head cloth topped with the uraeus, the false beard and shendyt kilt.

Hatshepsut – whose name means “foremost of noblewomen” – has generally been regarded as one of the most successful pharaohs in Egyptian history. During her reign, she established ambitious building projects, including the construction of a great temple at Deir el-Bahari at Luxor. She also oversaw the significant expansion of trade, launching a sea voyage to the northeast coast of Africa.

4. Nefertiti (1370-1330 BC)

Alongside her husband Akhenaten IV, Nefertiti ruled Egypt from 1353 to 1336 BC. The power couple of the ancient world are best remembered for starting a monotheistic religious revolution. Prior to their reign, Egyptian religion was polytheistic. Nefertiti and Akhenaten pushed for the worship of only one god – the sun disk called Aten.

Under their joint rule, ancient Egypt became more prosperous than it had ever been. Nefertiti ruled Egypt after the death of her husband, however she vanished from historical records within a few years of assuming the throne.

Some scholars believe she ruled Egypt briefly as pharaoh under the name Neferneferuaten, before the ascension of Tutankhamun.

5. Cleopatra VII (r. 51-12 BC)

Marble bust of Cleopatra VII of Egypt from ca. 40-30 BC. Image credit: Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Image Credit: Louis le Grand, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

The daughter of Ptolemy XII, Cleopatra was the last active pharaoh in Ptolemaic Egypt, ruling as co-regent first with her brothers Ptolemy XIII and then Ptolemy XIV. Cleopatra was forced to flee when Ptolemy XIII ousted her from power. Determined to regain the throne, she raised an army of mercenaries and sought the backing of Roman leader Julius Caesar.

With Rome’s military might, she defeated her brother’s forces, gained control of Egypt, and bore Julius Caesar a son. After his death, she became involved with his successor, Marc Anthony. Of Macedonian origin, Cleopatra was fluent in a multitude of languages including Aramaic, Egyptian, Ethiopic, Greek, Hebrew and Latin.