Embark on an extraordinary maritime journey that blurs the lines between ancient legend and archaeological reality. Join historian Dan Snow in this special 2-part series as he retraces the route of the greatest adventure ever told, sailing the beautiful Ionian Sea in the wake of Odysseus’s immense journey home from the Trojan War.

More than a simple retelling, this gripping two-part series serves as an investigative deep dive into the bedrock of Ancient Greek culture. As Dan navigates from the ruins of Troy to the rugged, imposing walls of Mycenae – the “city rich in gold” – he uncovers the historical echoes behind Homer’s verses. This is not merely a travelogue; it is a meticulously researched exploration of the rituals, societal norms, and spiritual beliefs that defined the classical world.

Melikertis at dusk – the boat that stands in on camera for the ship of Odysseus.

Image Credit: History Hit

Throughout the voyage, Dan is joined by a chorus of world-leading classicists and archaeologists who bring antiquity to life. Experience the nuance of the epic with celebrated translator Emily Wilson; witness the power of ancient oratory as Steve Kershaw recites Homeric Greek in a modern town square; explore the sacred, complex duties of Xenia with Emily Hauser; decode the tense interplay of gods and mortals with Tulsi Parikh; and delve into the might of Mycenaean civilization with Tristan Hughes. 

As the narrative unfolds upon the water, the series captures the haunting beauty of the Ionian Sea, visiting locations that inspired myths of Cyclopean caves, siren songs, and enchanted isles. The journey culminates in Ithaca, where Dan probes the ancient ruins – rumoured to be the very palace where Odysseus orchestrated his final, bloody reclamation of his home.

Join us for a fascinating synthesis of history, mythology, and exploration. Discover the true story of the “complicated” and “much turned about” hero whose voyage shaped Western literature and continues to captivate the modern imagination.

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The Odyssey – Part 1: The Voyage from Troy

We travel from Troy to the Ionian Sea as Dan takes to the water to explore the tortuous beginnings of the journey home, from far off Illium, via Circe’s enchanted island to the Underworld itself…

The Odyssey – Part 2: Return from Ithaca

Dan sails all the way home to Ithaca! Along the way he encounters storms, whirlpools, sirens and the wrath of the gods…

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History Hit is full of Odyssey and Trojan War content.  You can watch our special bonus film where Dan discusses the Odyssey with celebrated classicist, Prof. Mary Beard. On Dan Snow’s History Hit podcast he goes deep into the story, and on the Ancients podcast Tristan Hughes speaks to key Greece experts about the history around the myths.

“Oarsmen to your benches!” Climb aboard with Odysseus and History Hit to enjoy a cornucopia of fascinating insights into this epic story.

In the first episode of History Hit’s new documentary series Katherine Howard: Vixen or Victim?, Professor Suzannah Lipscomb sets out to dismantle these caricatures. By visiting the spaces Katherine inhabited – from the drafty corridors of her youth to the glittering galleries of Hampton Court – Suzannah searches for the real woman hidden beneath five centuries of Tudor scandal and myth.

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The ghost in the gallery

The tragedy of Katherine Howard is often synonymous with the “Haunted Gallery” at Hampton Court Palace. Popular lore describes a desperate Queen running toward the Chapel Royal in November 1541, her screams echoing through the corridors as she begged for mercy while guards dragged her away from a husband who had just discovered her past.

While Suzannah reveals that this specific, dramatic dash is likely an apocryphal Victorian invention, she acknowledges why the story persists: it perfectly captures the sheer, visceral horror felt by a young woman whose meteoric rise was met with an equally violent fall. Katherine ascended from a Maid of Honour to a Queen in mere months; just over a year later, she was headed for the block.

Filming in the “Haunted Gallery” at Hampton Court Palace

Image Credit: History Hit

Redefining the ‘child bride’

Episode One reveals a forensic re-examination of Katherine’s age. Traditional narratives often place her birth as late as 1526, making her a mere 14-year-old at the time of her marriage – a ‘child bride’ with little understanding of her situation.

However, Suzannah points to evidence from the French Ambassador, Charles de Marillac, which suggests she was likely born around 1522.

“This revised understanding significantly changes the way we see her,” explains Suzannah. “She was not the child bride that we have in our mind’s eye, in fact she was probably around 18 years old when she married Henry in July 1540” – a young woman with more agency than we often credit her.

Portrait of a Young Woman, c. 1540–45, Workshop of Hans Holbein the Younger

Image Credit: Public Domain / History Hit

Chesworth House: A world of “in-between” spaces

To understand the Queen, we must first understand the girl. In Episode One, Suzannah travels to Chesworth House in Sussex, where, following her mother’s death, Katherine was raised under the guardianship of her step-grandmother, the Dowager Duchess of Norfolk.

In the Tudor era, society believed that parental indulgence was a moral failing, consequently, noble children were often sent to be raised in another aristocratic household to ensure they received the rigorous discipline and social polishing deemed necessary for court life.

Chesworth House

Image Credit: History Hit

The documentary dismantles Victorian myths of a “lax” or “immoral” household, revealing instead the complex reality of Tudor wardship. Suzannah meets historian Dr Nicola Clark who explains how in the Tudor era, social classes mixed with surprising freedom. “The Victorians probably thought that these women and men of lower status are dragging Katherine down to their level, where in fact the evidence does not really suggest that at all” says Nicky. 

At the heart of this was the “Maiden’s Chamber” – a communal space where aristocratic young women shared beds, gossip, and secrets with those of lower social standing. It was in these “in-between” spaces that Katherine entered into relationships with two men: her music teacher, Henry Mannox, and the Duchess’s secretary, Francis Dereham.

• The Mannox Affair (c1536): Often framed as an abuse of power, research suggests her music teacher, Henry Mannox was only five years Katherine’s senior. Crucially, Katherine demonstrated a “head screwed on,” refusing to lose her virginity to a man of his low status despite his pressure.
• The Dereham Contract (1538): Her relationship with the Duchess’s secretary, Francis Dereham, was far more serious, and more widely known within Chesworth House. They referred to each other as husband and wife and engaged in full intercourse – a “pre-contract” that, under Canon Law, could be viewed as a legally binding marriage.

Rather than seeing Katherine as a passive pawn, the evidence reveals a young woman navigating these illicit encounters with a surprising level of command.

Prof Suzannah Lipscomb discusses Katherine Howard’s time at Chesworth House with historian Dr Nicola Clark

Image Credit: History Hit

The “Party Queen” of Hampton Court

By 1539, Katherine’s status as a Howard brought her to court as a Maid of Honour. She quickly broke things off with Dereham, who fled to Ireland heartbroken. At court, Katherine engaged in a flirtatious power play with the charismatic Thomas Culpeper, but the plan backfired; when she held him at arm’s length, he abruptly moved on, leaving her devastated and arguably more infatuated than ever.

However, her arrival was a breath of fresh air for Henry VIII, who found his current wife, Anne of Cleves, physically repulsive. Henry was visibly infatuated, showering Katherine with jewels and public displays of affection. 

Their courtship moved at a breakneck pace, and they married on 28 July 1540 – less than 3 weeks after his previous marriage was annulled. Katherine was probably just 18 years old, Henry was almost 50. As Suzannah points out, “the speed and intensity of Henry’s pursuit of Katherine raises the question of her agency. In what world could a young, noble woman reject the king’s advances, particularly one as strong-willed and powerful as Henry”.

Historian Gareth Russell

Image Credit: History Hit

Historian Gareth Russell joins Suzannah to discuss Katherine’s early successes. Far from a political failure, Katherine was the star attraction of the court. She navigated Tudor politics with careful neutrality, choosing to remain apolitical to avoid the fate of her cousin, Anne Boleyn.

“Doing nothing is a choice,” Russell notes. “Everything she did was a deliberate attempt to be the perfect, apolitical queen consort.”

She even handled the potentially explosive meeting with the divorced Anne of Cleves with extraordinary grace, gifting her puppies and jewellery to signal to foreign ambassadors that the English court was a place of harmony.

The turning point: The Progress North

Episode One culminates with the Great Royal Progress of 1541 – a monumental political and military operation involving 5,000 horses and a mobile court of 200 tents. Designed to project power over the rebellious North, this strategic display of regal authority sought to suppress religious dissent and stabilise the realm ahead of a potential invasion of France. Katherine’s job was to shine at her husband’s side.

At Lincoln Cathedral, Katherine reached the zenith of her power, embodying the perfect image of a pious, loyal Queen. Yet while she played her role flawlessly in the public eye, the ghosts of Chesworth House were beginning to stir. 

Depiction of King Henry VIII on the Royal Progress in 1541.

Image Credit: History Hit

Vixen or victim?

As Episode One concludes, Suzannah leaves us with a woman who was neither a fool nor a mere victim. Katherine Howard was a confident, commanded, and musically talented young woman who understood the social graces of her age. She made choices – for fun and for survival – in a world where the margin for error was zero.

In the next episode, Suzannah explores how Katherine’s past finally collided with her present – and the “Rose Without a Thorn” found herself facing the executioner.

Watch Episode 1 of Katherine Howard: Vixen or Victim? now on History Hit to see Suzannah Lipscomb uncover the real woman behind the Tudor legend. Episode 2 is also available to watch now.

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Historian Philippa Langley, renowned for her role in uncovering Richard III’s remains in 2012, established ‘The Missing Princes Project’ in 2016, employing the methods of a cold-case policy enquiry to try and solve the case. In her book, The Princes in the Tower: Solving History’s Greatest Cold Case – our Book of the Month for December 2023, she records the painstaking investigative research work of the project. By questioning received wisdom, she and her team shed light upon one of history’s greatest miscarriages of justice, revealing a phenomenal, untold story.

Here we learn more about Langley’s discoveries, both from her book and her interview with Matt Lewis on History Hit’s Gone Medieval podcast in which Langley explained her painstaking research and her astonishing new archival discoveries.

Who were the ‘Princes in the Tower’ and why were they imprisoned?

In 1483, King Edward IV died aged 40. His two sons, the soon-to-be crowned King Edward V and his younger brother, Richard of Shrewsbury, were sent to the Tower of London to await Edward’s coronation. However, his coronation never came, and the two brothers disappeared from the tower, and were never seen again, presumed dead. Richard III took the crown in Edward’s absence. Since then, most people have presumed that Richard III had the boys murdered, to avoid rival claimants to his throne.

The Princes in the Tower, by John Everett Millais (1878)

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons / John Everett Millais / Royal Holloway collection / Public Domain

The Missing Princes Project

Philippa Langley’s ‘Missing Princes Project’ stemmed from the ‘Looking for Richard‘ project, the first-ever search for the grave of an anointed King of England. Its evidence-based research approach challenged the beliefs of many historians. After the discovery of Richard III’s body, a headline in The Daily Mail published during the reburial week labelled him a ‘child-killer’, prompting Langley to realise the need for a fresh evidence-based project to determine the truth – the Missing Princes Project.

It’s approach was formulated by Langley who had consulted police and barristers in order to treat the project as a police cold-case investigation – starting with a clean sheet without any biases or use of hindsight. This international effort involved over 300 members who, without being told what to look for, collected information from local archives spanning 1483-1486. This resulted in over 300,000 files, necessitating a supercomputer to manage, cross-check and reference all the material coming in.

Despite her long-held interest in the case and doubts about the princes’ murder due to insufficient evidence, Langley was determined to approach the evidence objectively – as she explained to Matt Lewis, on the Gone Medieval podcast:

Searching for evidence of the boys’ deaths

Langley meticulously built a chronology of events, starting from the last known sighting of the princes at the Tower of London in June 1483. Intriguingly, she found no evidence supporting the boys’ deaths during Richard III’s reign.

The police advised her that to uncover the truth she should investigate routine administrative records, financial accounts and legal documents – combined with examining chronicles from the time, Langley saw a shift in historical accounts.

Edward V: The elder prince was mentioned in routine administrative records throughout Richard III’s reign. If an account referred to something that took place from April-June 1483 – when Edward V had been the named king – it was referred to in terms of, ‘at the time of the bastard Edward V’, or ‘the bastard king’. Notably, this was without any indications of his death or customary prayers for his soul (as would have been added at the time if relevant), suggesting normalcy, and contrary to the expected disruptions if he had indeed died.

Richard, Duke of York: Richard had fewer mentions in records due to his lesser status. Nonetheless, an entry in the Treasurer’s Accounts for Cambridge from September 1484 referred to a payment to Richard, Duke of York. Although likely an error by the cleric who had meant Edward, Earl of Warwick (who was in King Richard’s household at this time and with him during his visit to Cambridge), this entry implied that at the time, there was a belief in Richard, Duke of York’s existence.

What if the princes had survived?

After 4 years of fruitless searching for evidence of the princes’ deaths, Langley shifted her focus towards exploring the possibility that the princes might have survived. Following advice from police specialists, she conducted a meticulous forensic analysis, scrutinising events moment by moment, particularly honing in on the Battle of Bosworth where the paths of Richard III and Henry Tudor converged.

Langley’s investigation revealed that the narrative of the princes’ murder surfaced with Henry Tudor and his foreign invasion force. The earliest mention of their alleged murder in England came from a Welsh poet around 14 August 1485, after the Battle of Bosworth, blaming Richard III for the act. This narrative gained momentum in England from that point onward.

Notably, Henry Tudor’s actions after his victory at Bosworth – delaying his journey to London (a move contrary to expectations given London’s strategic importance) and dispatching searches – suggested a quest for the sons of Edward IV. Actions he wouldn’t have taken if they were already dead.

Edward V and the Lille receipt

The UK investigation was hampered due to the amount of documents lost under Henry VII’s rule. However, a breakthrough came when a Dutch research group discovered a crucial accounting receipt in the Lille archive in France, dating back to 16 December 1487. This receipt provided evidence of Edward V’s existence, and his leadership of an invasion force into England in 1487, culminating in the Battle of Stoke.

The receipt, detailing a payment for 400 pikes, was made by King Maximilian I on behalf of the Dowager Duchess, Margaret of Burgundy, sister of Richard III and aunt to Edward V. It explicitly mentioned the pikes were ‘to lead across the sea with a specialist a German mercenary, who the Madam the Dowager sent at that time, together with several captains of war from England, to serve her nephew, son of King Edward, late her brother, who was expelled from his dominion’ – identifying him as Edward V.

Significantly, the receipt was signed by three prominent members of Maximilian‘s court (his secretary, and, controllers of the artillery and weaponry), reinforcing its authenticity and accuracy. There would have been multiple opportunities for correction if the information wasn’t true.

Crucially, the absence of customary phrases indicating the person’s death in the receipt, a common practice in those religious times, suggested that Edward V was believed to be alive after the Battle of Stoke in 1487. This discovery challenges the established narratives surrounding Richard III, the princes’ fate, and the early years of Henry VII’s reign, prompting a reevaluation of the Yorkist dynasty and Henry VII’s rule.

Despite deliberate destruction of paperwork by Henry VII’s government, European archives, beyond Henry’s reach, provided crucial insights. Langley’s investigation, tracing accounts, revealed Edward V’s presence in the Channel Islands (Guernsey) during both Richard III and early Henry Tudor’s reign, confirming his expulsion from his dominion.

Richard, Duke of York

If Edward had survived beyond 1485, it was hopeful that his younger brother Richard had too, but Langley needed evidence.

In November 2020, a stunning discovery emerged from criminal lawyer, Natalie Neyman at the Gelderman archive in Holland—a four-page note purportedly written by Richard, Duke of York. The note chronicled his story from sanctuary at Westminster Abbey to the Tower of London and subsequent escape to safety in France and the Low Countries, orchestrated by John Howard, Duke of Norfolk, as well as Richard’s journey abroad with two companion retainers, Thomas and Henry Percy.

When this revelation was cross-referenced with existing administrative records, Langley found everything fell into place. Previously puzzling actions by key figures, including Elizabeth Woodville, the Princes’ mother, began to make sense in light of this evidence, suggesting her awareness of her sons’ survival. Langley also asserted that Henry VII’s actions, like imprisoning Thomas Grey, Marquis of Dorset, could be linked to the boys’ existence.

Addressing sceptics

The extraordinary nature of this evidence raised doubts about its authenticity. To validate it, Langley sought triple-checks from the archives that had made these discoveries. After receiving confirmation of authenticity, the documents were then scrutinised by leading medieval scholar Dr Janina Ramirez at Oxford University, who also confirmed the authenticity of three of the documents.

As the Gelderman document felt too good to be true, Ramirez recommended further verification. Langley’s documentary film team engaged two leading experts, one from Belgium specialising in Middle Dutch (the language the note was written in), and Dr Andrew Dunning (a leading expert at the Bodleian Library in Oxford). Both experts corroborated the legitimacy of the documents’ language and content, providing additional assurance of their authenticity.

Subsequently, more evidence surfaced, including a document signed by Richard as ‘Richard of England’, and a letter from King Maximilian in the Austrian archives. Maximilian’s letter described meting Richard, Duke of York, identifying his 3 unique birthmarks (by his eye, mouth, and thigh), and offering full support. (Maximilian was close to Margaret of Burgundy and favoured Yorkist claims, yet sought peace with Henry VII but felt mistreated. His support for Edward and Richard promised favourable trade and diplomatic relations if either reclaimed the throne.)

Philippa Langley’s book offers further evidence and explanations surrounding the princes and events that may have happened to them after their exit from the Tower of London, yet she acknowledges may people may inevitably not be convinced. However, she maintains that evidence-based research enables people to have an informed opinion. After all, before Richard III’s body was discovered people thought he had been thrown into a river.

The project remains ongoing, seeking further evidence for the final resting places of both princes. As for Richard III, in Langley’s view, he is exonerated of killing his nephews – the totality of evidence is in her book.

Philippa Langley MBE is a British writer/producer with a passion to tell distinctive and original narratives that challenge our perception of established truths. In 2012 she led the successful search to locate the grave of King Richard III through her Looking For Richard Project, conceiving, facilitating and commissioning this unique historical investigation.

Her book, The Princes in the Tower: Solving History’s Greatest Cold Case published by The History Press, reveals the findings of The Missing Princes Project – Philippa’s quest to find out what happened to the Princes in the Tower, and was published in November 2023.

Alexandria’s contributions to the world of knowledge through its Great Library and architectural marvels, including its famed lighthouse, remain a symbol of human achievement, and it is also believed to be home to the lost tombs of Alexander and Cleopatra.

Islam Issa’s Alexandria: The City That Changed The World – our book of the month for November 2023 – is a wide-ranging and sweeping biography of this ancient and iconic city, taking readers on a journey across millennia. Situated on the cusp of Africa, Europe and Asia, together, Greeks and Egyptians, Romans and Jews created a global knowledge capital of enormous influence. In pitched battles, later empires, from the Arabs and Ottomans to the French and British, laid claim to the city but its independent spirit endures and it is now home to over 5 million people.

Here we focus on the founding of this timeless jewel of the ancient Mediterranean, and its renowned institutions.

Foundation

The story of Alexandria’s birth is tightly woven with the ambition and conquests of Alexander the Great.

Alexander the Great ventured to Egypt in 332 BC, after his decisive victory over the Persian King Darius III at the Battle of Issus and after he had overwhelmed powerful cities – Tyre and Gaza – on the eastern Mediterranean shoreline. At that time, a prominent Persian satrap (governor) called Mazaces controlled Egypt (the Persians had been ruling Egypt since conquering it in 343 BC).

However, despite being controlled by a Persian noble, Alexander did not face any resistance when he reached Pelusium, the gateway to Egypt from the east. Instead, Alexander and his army were greeted by a huge crowd of Egyptians, who saw him as their liberator from Persian overlordship. Mazaces similarly welcomed Alexander, and Egypt passed over into Macedonian hands without a fight.

Alexander had a vision of a building a great city on Egypt’s coast that would bear his name – to unite the East and the West, and chose the site of present-day Alexandria as the ideal location. It was strategically situated between Africa and Asia, endowed with a natural harbour, and near the western edge of the Nile Delta (away from the silt and mud carried by the river that could block the harbour), making it an excellent trade and maritime hub.

Plan of Alexandria (c. 30 BC) according to Otto Puchstein, 1890s

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons / Philg88 / Based on: Shepherd, William (1911) Historical Atlas New York: Henry Holt & Co. p. 34-35. Courtesy of the University of Texas Libraries, The University of Texas at Austin. Perry-Castañeda Library Map Collection / CC BY-SA 3.0

During his stay in Egypt, Alexander was proclaimed the new pharaoh. However, Alexander’s ambitious dream was cut short by his untimely death in 323 BC, but his trusted general and successor, Ptolemy I Soter, took up the mantle of establishing the city, which served as Ptolemaic Egypt’s capital for centuries.

Design

Alexandria was the largest construction site of the ancient Mediterranean. Built on unoccupied ground, it was meticulously designed by the renowned architect Dinocrates, and followed Hellenistic city planning principles which used a grid pattern design with wide streets.

The best builders of the time were brought in to help build the city, installing complex engineering including an ingenious network of clay water pipes.

Each owner was allotted the same size of land on which to build a house (approximately 25 metres squared) – a system retained for centuries. A wealthy household would have about 600 square metres of land, enough for a spacious villa, gardens and even stables.

Within a few years, Alexandria’s population had increased to half a million, yet this was easily accommodated. Alexandria’s architects had anticipated this, and had designed a road system able to handle the higher volume of horse and cart traffic.

Such a large population enabled division of labour and specialisation, making the city a major centre of production.

Cultural melting pot

Alexandria’s grandeur and strategic significance were apparent straightaway, attracting many people, and making it a melting pot of various cultures, languages, and traditions. 

Alexandrian women followed Greek fashion in clothes and hair, yet also assimilated Egyptian culture. While in Greece, women were expected to be in the home, in Alexandria they had slightly more opportunities, inspired by Egypt’s powerful female rulers.

Graves show mixtures of Greek and Egyptian worship, highlighting the peaceful coexistence between Alexandria’s Greek settlers and Egyptians and how Ptolemaic culture adopted Egyptian customs, participating in Egyptian religious life.

The most modern city of its time, Alexandria also became a centre of knowledge, and the cultural centre of the ancient world.

Apollonius of Perga (c262-190 BC) Ancient Greek geometer and astronomer, giving a demonstration in Alexandria where, as a young man, he studied, and then taught. Engraving, Paris, 1866

Image Credit: Alamy / World History Archive

The Great Library of Alexandria

Among the city’s many treasures was the legendary Great Library of Alexandria. Established during the reign of Ptolemy II Philadelphus around 280 BC, this institution was dedicated to collecting, preserving, and disseminating knowledge from across the ancient world, containing over 700,000 scrolls.

Every ship that docked in Alexandria was required to hand over all written materials on board to the library (receiving copies in return); subsequently the library’s collection included texts from Egypt, Greece, Persia, India, and other regions, making it a true cosmopolitan centre of learning and the collective store of the knowledge of antiquity.

The library attracted scholars, philosophers, and scientists from all corners of the known world, including famous names like Euclid, Archimedes, Eratosthenes, and Aristarchus. It became the prototype for modern libraries, with cataloging systems, research facilities, and a commitment to the advancement of knowledge. However, for all of Alexandria’s modernity, only men had access to the library.

Tragically, the library’s ultimate fate remains a subject of debate, but it is widely believed to have suffered multiple incidents of destruction, primarily during the Roman conquest of Alexandria, including a fire in the 3rd century AD. Not a single scroll survived, and the loss of this repository of human knowledge remains one of history’s greatest cultural tragedies.

Present-day ruins of the Serapeum of Alexandria, where the Library of Alexandria moved part of its collection after it ran out of storage space in the main building.

Image Credit: Daniel Mayer, CC BY-SA 4.0 , via Wikimedia Commons

The Lighthouse of Alexandria

Alexandria also boasted another iconic building, the Lighthouse of Alexandria, also known as the ‘Pharos of Alexandria’. Constructed under the orders of Ptolemy II Philadelphus in 299 BC, this towering structure stood as a marvel of engineering and architecture; marking Egypt’s gateway to the world.

Its primary purpose was to guide sailors safely into the busy harbour, a critical function given the city’s role as a maritime and trade hub of goods from all over the Mediterranean. Yet the lighthouse was not just a practical navigational aid; it was also a symbol of the city’s wealth and splendour, and a symbol of hope for those making the perilous voyage there. 

At over 100 metres high, it was one of the ancient world’s tallest structures (and indeed one of its Seven Wonders), designed by the Greek architect Sostratus of Cnidus, who employed innovative engineering techniques. The lighthouse featured an open flame at the top, fuelled by a combination of wood and dried plants, which could be seen from miles away.

The lighthouse at Alexandria, Egypt, was estimated to be between 380 and 440 feet tall. It was identified as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World by Antipater of Sidon.

Image Credit: Science History Images / Alamy Stock Photo

Intriguingly, the lighthouse also included a system of mirrors and lenses to amplify the light and direct it out to sea – foreshadowing advancements in optics and the development of lighthouses in later centuries.

The ‘Pharos of Alexandria’ remained an iconic structure for centuries but eventually succumbed to earthquakes and neglect. Nothing remains of the lighthouse today, and its exact location remains uncertain despite indications of its ruins, fascinating archaeologists.

Underwater mysteries

In 31 BC the Romans subjugated the realm of the Ptolemaic dynasty, reducing Alexandria to a provincial town in their Empire. They built their own city on top of Alexandria and imposed their own culture, ending the intermingling of cultures and marking a new era in the city’s history.

Alexandria, like much of the Nile Delta, experienced significant land subsidence over the centuries, leading to the gradual submersion of parts of the ancient city. Today, underwater archaeology has revealed a treasure trove of historical artefacts and submerged structures beneath the waters of modern Alexandria’s harbour.

Columns at the underwater museum near the former lighthouse, Alexandria, Egypt.

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons

One such find is the sunken palace of Cleopatra, the last ruler of the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt. This underwater site is believed to be the royal quarters of the palace complex that once stood on the island of Antirhodos. 

Additionally, various relics and structures have been found, including submerged sections of the ancient city, port facilities, and shipwrecks – providing valuable insights into daily life, trade, and maritime activities of this ancient city marvel.

The soldiers smashed several chests to the ground, using the bones as missiles to shatter the cathedral’s stained glass windows. Afterwards, the clergy scrambled to collect the scattered remains. In 2014, the six remaining chests were reopened, and a team of forensic archaeologists, using the latest scientific methods, attempted to identify the contents. They found an elaborate jumble of bones, and have since made some surprising discoveries.

In her book, The Bone Chests: Unlocking the Secrets of the Anglo-Saxons – our book of the month for October 2023 – bioarchaeologist, historian and bestselling author Dr Cat Jarman builds on this evidence to untangle the stories of the people within. Running through more than a millennium of British history, her book tells the story of both the seekers and the sought, of those who protected the bones and those who spurned them; and of the methods used to investigate.

History Hit’s Matt Lewis spoke to Dr Cat Jarman about her book on the Gone Medieval podcast. Here we discuss some of the highlights from the interview, and take a further look at how science has helped analyse and unlock the content of the bone chests to unveil some of England’s monarchs whose remains were housed within.

The bone chests

After walking down the nave of Winchester cathedral and reaching the presbytery, visitors can see large stone screens. High up on a ledge on either side, are six carefully carved and decorated wooden chests, with writing on the outside. These chests are mortuary chests, and contain some of the most illustrious royals of early medieval England.

These include eight kings, including William Rufus and Cnut the Great (the only Scandinavian king to rule England and a North Sea Empire); three bishops; and a formidable queen, Emma of Normandy. These were the very people who witnessed and orchestrated the creation of the kingdom of Wessex in the 7th century; who lived through the creation of England as a unified country in response to the Viking threat; and who were part and parcel of the Norman conquest.

One of the bone chests that remain in Winchester Cathedral

Image Credit: James Carson

Winchester cathedral is a Norman cathedral, built in the 11th century. Before this, it was the site of two former churches, one dating back to the 7th century. It is these churches that would have once housed the original bone chests. The chests seen today replace the earlier chests, and date from the 16th century. Some bone chests (mortuary chests housing these remains) were made in the 1400s, and some even earlier ones date back to the 12th century and before that – highlighting how these mortuary chests go back practically a millennium. 

Why were the chests targeted in 1642?

During the English Civil War, churches were especially at threat from being ransacked. In December 1642, Winchester had been targeted by parliamentarian troops who had started raiding and looting its key buildings. Between 9-10am on the morning of 14 December 1642, (according to an eye witness account), the parliamentarians – some on horseback carrying lit flares – suddenly burst through the west doors and rode down the nave, destroying the inside of the cathedral along with anything they could find.

Having found the presbytery and its stone screens, they climbed up to the chests and started rifling through them. At this point there were 10 mortuary chests, and after finding the bones inside, the troops threw the chests and bones to the floor, hurling some of the bones at the cathedral’s stained glass windows to shatter the glass.

The eyewitness account claims that at one point, someone called out and told them to stop (aware of the bones’ significance), which left 4 of the chests intact. The rest had been broken, but 2 chests were made as replacements shortly after the incident, leaving a total of 6. Whatever bones could be found were gathered up and placed back in the chests.

The Mortuary Chest project

It had long been believed that the 6 mortuary chests contained the mortal remains of pre-Conquest kings and bishops, but for many years this was merely speculation. The bones had been co-mingled over the centuries and it was clear that the chests did not contain whole skeletons.

Conservation of the mortuary chests began in 2012, led by a team of archaeologists and anthropologists from Bristol University, and supported by the Dean and Chapter of Winchester Cathedral. This provided an opportunity for the scientific analysis of the contents for the first time, recording the contents and determining the number of individuals represented.

For a long time it was also known that more people were included in the chests than the words depicted on the outside, with some records specifying they contained at least 15 people. Through studying the contents and history of the chests, the team also assessed the likelihood of whether the human remains in the chests related to the historical burial records, rather than being a fake relic. It wasn’t until 2015 that radiocarbon dating carried out by experts from Oxford University confirmed the bones were from the late Anglo-Saxon and early Norman periods, confirming that the bones date from the same periods as the names on the chests. 

In total, the researchers reassembled over 1,300 human bones, each one carefully measured and recorded, and at least 23 partial skeletons were reconstructed.

Modern forensic methods such as isotope analysis, DNA, and carbon dating were also able to determine sex, age at death, diet, and physical characteristics, resulting in some exciting discoveries. This included the remains of a mature female dispersed across several chests, now believed to belong to Queen Emma of Normandy who died in 1052 in Winchester. Emma was the daughter of Richard I, Duke of Normandy, and the wife of two successive Kings of England (Ethelred and Cnut), and the mother of King Edward the Confessor and King Hardacnut. She was a powerful political figure in late Saxon England, and her family ties provided William the Conqueror with a measure of justification for his claim to the English throne.

Completely unexpected was the discovery of two juvenile skeletons, adolescent boys who had died between age 10 to 15 years old in the mid-11th to late 12th-century. Their presence in the chests was not recorded and their identity is thought to possibly be that of two princes.

Here we can see how history and science can work together to find out information of help to both parties; neither can answer it all on their own.

In her fascinating book, Cat Jarman builds on this scientific evidence to untangle the stories of the people within the mortuary chests. Through studying their lives, Cat Jarman uncovers the entire story from the 7th century and the beginning of the Anglo-Saxon period (the beginning of the kingdom of Wessex) right up to the Normans and the burial of William Rufus (son of William the Conqueror, who died in 1100).

Cat Jarman is a bioarchaeologist and bestselling author of River Kings – and a former co-host of History Hit’s Gone Medieval podcast. Her book, The Bone Chests: Unlocking the Secrets of the Anglo-Saxons is published by HarperCollins Publishers.

In her book, Emperor of Rome: Ruling the Ancient Roman World – our book of the month for September 2023 – Mary Beard shines her spotlight on the emperors who ruled the Roman empire, from Julius Caesar (assassinated 44 BC) to Alexander Severus (assassinated 235 AD). Rather than giving a chronological account of Roman rulers one after another, Beard asks bigger questions: What power did emperors actually have, and was the Roman palace really so bloodstained?

Here we delve into the reality of what it was like to rule and be ruled in the Ancient Roman world.

The nature of Imperial power

At the heart of the Roman Empire was the institution of the Emperor. Emperors were central figures in Roman politics, society, and culture, and wielded enormous power. But what was the true extent of this power, and how did it impact those ruled by them?

Emperors held a unique position in Roman society. While not elected, their legitimacy often rested on the support of the Roman Senate and the military. The Senate – an assembly of Roman aristocrats – could bestow titles and powers upon the emperor, effectively granting them the authority to rule. However, over time, the Senate’s role became increasingly symbolic, and real power resided in the hands of the emperors themselves.

The emperor’s power was vast. They had control over the Roman legions, the backbone of the empire’s military might, allowing them to defend the empire from external threats and to suppress internal uprisings or challenges to their rule. The emperor also controlled the empire’s finances, making decisions about taxation, expenditure, and trade policies.

Along with political and military power, the emperor was also the chief religious figure. Emperors were often deified, with elaborate cults and temples dedicated to their worship. This religious aspect of their role further consolidated their authority, as they were seen as intermediaries between the people and the gods.

However, emperors were still subject to certain constraints, including the need to maintain the support of the military and key political allies. If an emperor lost this support, they could be deposed or even assassinated. The famous Roman historian Tacitus noted, “The object of power is power,” highlighting the precarious nature of imperial rule.

The assassination of Julius Caesar, painted by William Holmes Sullivan, c. 1888

Image Credit: via Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain

Was life in the Roman palace really quite so bloodstained?

The image of the Roman palace as a blood-soaked den of cruelty, brutality and excess has been perpetuated by popular culture for centuries. While there is some truth to these tales, it is essential to put these stories into context – the Roman palace was not a constant scene of horror.

Emperors such as Nero and Caligula are often cited as prime examples of the supposed bloodlust that ran through the Roman palace. Nero, for instance, is infamous for his alleged fiddling while Rome burned and his persecution of early Christians. Caligula is remembered for his eccentricities, including appointing his horse as a consul and his seemingly random acts of cruelty.

It is true that some emperors indulged in extravagant and sometimes brutal behaviour, but these were not representative of all emperors, or the daily life within the Roman palace. Furthermore, many of these stories come to us through the writings of ancient historians, some of whom had political agendas or were writing long after the events they described – making it challenging to separate fact from fiction.

Emperors did enjoy a life of luxury and privilege, but also faced immense pressure and political intrigue. The palace was often a place of political manoeuvring and backstabbing, with advisors, generals, and family members jockeying for influence and power. In this environment, emperors sometimes resorted to brutal measures to maintain their authority and eliminate perceived threats.

Poppaea brings the head of Octavia to Nero – by Giovanni Muzzioli

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons / Giovanni Muzzioli / Civic Museum of Modena / CC BY-SA 3.0

However, crucially, the lives of ordinary Romans were not directly affected by the palace’s intrigues. Most Romans lived far removed from the political centre in cities, towns, and rural areas, and were primarily concerned with their daily lives, such as work, family, and community. The actions of emperors did not always have a direct impact on them.

In fact, some emperors were known for their relatively benevolent rule. Augustus, for example, brought about a period of relative stability and prosperity known as the Pax Romana. During this time, the Roman Empire experienced a significant period of peace and economic growth, improving the lives of many of its citizens.

Augustus of Prima Porta, 1st century (cropped)

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons / Vatican Museums, Public domain

The diverse realm of the Roman Empire

The Roman Empire was vast and diverse, encompassing a wide range of cultures, languages, and traditions. While the emperor held ultimate authority, local governance and administration played a significant role in the lives of the empire’s subjects.

Provincial governors, known as proconsuls or propraetors, were appointed by the emperor to oversee specific regions of the empire. These governors had significant authority within their provinces, and were responsible for maintaining law and order, collecting taxes, and administering justice. This allowed for a degree of local autonomy and flexibility in governance.

In addition to governors, the Roman Empire had a complex bureaucracy that managed the day-to-day affairs of the state. This included a vast network of civil servants, tax collectors, and administrators who ensured the empire’s functioning. While they operated under imperial authority, they also had a direct impact on the lives of the people they governed.

The Roman Empire was also marked by its inclusivity. Romans were generally tolerant of local religions and customs, allowing conquered peoples to maintain their traditions so long as they acknowledged Roman authority to become Roman, no matter where they called home. This approach helped integrate various cultures into the broader Roman identity, further expanding the empire.

Ordinary Roman life

While emperors and the elite of Roman society often dominate historical narratives, it’s important to remember that the Roman Empire was primarily composed of common people. The daily lives of the average Roman citizen were shaped by various factors, including their social class, occupation, and geographic location.

For the urban population, life revolved around the bustling cities of the empire, such as Rome, Alexandria, and Constantinople. ‘Roman’ towns were built throughout the empire, extending the Roman way of life, and cities were centres of commerce, culture, and political activity.

Male citizens engaged in a wide range of professions, including farming, trade, craftsmanship, and civil service, whilst less wealthy women generally worked in the family business and took care of their households. Wealthier Roman women who had more free time could however own property and run their own businesses if they wished.

Life in the city offered opportunities for social mobility and cultural enrichment, particularly in the forum, a large, open square courtyard surrounded by shops and important public buildings which acted as a central meeting place where they could trade goods as well as discuss local issues. Music, theatre and dance were enjoyed, alongside violent shows known as ‘The Games’ where people gathered in amphitheatres to watch events such as chariot races and gladiatorial combat.

However, city life could also be challenging, with overcrowding, pollution, and occasional food shortages. Whilst wealthier Romans ate elaborate meals, ordinary people ate simpler foods, including free bread from the state.

A mosaic depicting enslaved Romans performing agricultural work. Unknown date.

Image Credit: Historym1468 / CC BY-SA 4.0

In contrast, rural life was the norm for a significant portion of the population. The majority of Romans lived in small villages or on farms, working the land (mostly by hand) to sustain themselves and their families. These rural communities were often self-sufficient, producing their own food and resources. While they lacked city amenities, rural life had its own rewards, including a stronger connection to the land and sense of community.

Roman society was stratified into various social classes, with the elite at the top, followed by the middle class, and finally, the working class and slaves. Social mobility was possible, but it was often challenging for individuals to rise above their birth status. Few children went to school – for most, education was in the hands of the family, and centred on managing the household for girls, or reading, writing, arithmetic, and the laws and proper conduct for boys.

Slavery was a fundamental institution in the Roman world. Most were kidnapped from their home villages, while other were prisoners of war, captured by the Roman army. Slaves performed a wide range of tasks, from household chores to agricultural labor and even skilled craftsmanship. Indeed it was the slaves and servants who, in reality, made the emperor’s lifestyle possible.

Mary Beard is one of the most original and best-known classicists working today. She is Professor of Classics at Newnham College, Cambridge, and the Classics editor of the TLS. She is a fellow of the British Academy and a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Her books include the Wolfson Prize-winning Pompeii: The Life of a Roman Town (2008) and the best-selling SPQR: A History of Ancient Rome (2015). Her popular TLS blog has been collected in the books It’s a Don’s Life and All in a Don’s Day. Her latest book, Emperor of Rome: Ruling the Ancient Roman World is published by Profile Books, and is published on 28 September 2023.

In his revealing biography, ‘Jackie: Public, Private, Secret’ – our Book of the Month for August 2023 – Kennedy historian J. Randy Taraborrelli paints an unforgettable new portrait of Jackie Kennedy. Based on hundreds of interviews with friends, family, and lovers over a 30 period – as well as previously unreleased material from the JFK Library – Taraborrelli reveals a woman whose flaws and contradictions only served to make her even more iconic.

Jackie Kennedy’s grace, elegance, and enduring style have immortalised her as a cultural icon, but her influence extended beyond fashion. Alongside her efforts to restore the White House, promote arts and culture, and support humanitarian causes, Jackie Kennedy’s dedication to public service played a crucial role in shaping America’s perception of the presidency, enhancing its cultural identity and its representation on the world stage.

Here we explore the wider political impact of America’s most famous First Lady.

Marriage to John F. Kennedy

In 1952, Jackie met John F. Kennedy at a dinner party in Washington, D.C. The pair quickly became smitten, bonding over their shared Catholicism, experiences of living abroad and enjoyment of reading and writing.

Although Kennedy’s political career meant frequent time apart, their love deepened, and he proposed within 6 months of their meeting after the November Senate election. Their engagement was announced in June 1953, and the pair married on 12 September 1953, in a lavish ceremony deemed the social event of the year.

Jackie Kennedy with her husband as he campaigns for the presidency in Appleton, Wisconsin, March 1960

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons / Photo © by Jeff Dean - then a student at Lawrence College, Appleton, Wisconsin / CC

Role in JFK’s campaign trail

Having experienced personal setbacks in their early marriage (including a miscarriage and stillborn daughter) Jackie joined John during his campaigns so they could spend more time together with their young daughter, Caroline. As John’s political career grew, Jackie skilfully balanced her desire for privacy with public expectations of her as a potential First Lady, becoming beloved and admired.

Jackie actively participated in John’s congressional campaign, appearing at rallies and advising on his image. Her presence drew noticeably larger crowds to his political rallies; Kennedy later acknowledged Jackie had been “simply invaluable” on the campaign trail.

Jackie became pregnant shortly into John’s presidential campaign and limited her public appearances, but continued to answer campaign mail, present TV commercials, give interviews and write Campaign Wife, a syndicated column. Jackie faced intense media attention, particularly regarding her fashion and personal style. Whilst her wardrobe was envied, some criticised her expensive choices. In response she emphasised her campaign work, and avoided public discussions about her clothing.

Despite her pregnancy preventing her from attending John’s nomination for presidency, Jackie proved instrumental in securing contacts to help with ideas and speeches for his third TV debate, and appeared with John in a joint TV interview.

First Lady

Shortly after JFK won the US presidential election, Jackie gave birth to their first son. JFK was sworn in as president on 20 January 1961, and aged 31, Jackie became the third youngest First Lady in US history, and the first to have an infant since the turn of the century.

The Kennedys’ ‘Camelot’ differed from their predecessors in political affiliation, youth, and their media relationship, embracing a more vague and TV-orientated approach to appearances. The first presidential wife to hire a press secretary, Jackie carefully managed her media interactions, avoiding public statements and controlling the extent her children were photographed.

While Jackie prioritised taking care of the President, she believed that raising children well was of utmost importance. The media portrayed Jackie as an ideal woman, attracting positive public attention worldwide which helped JFK’s administration gain allies and international support for Cold War policies.

President Kennedy and Jackie with their two children, Caroline and John, photographed at their summer house in Hyannis Port, 1962.

White House restoration

As First Lady, Jackie Kennedy’s first and most enduring legacy was the restoration and preservation of the White House. Dismayed by its lack of historical furnishings and information during her tourist visit in 1941, she aimed to make it “the most perfect house in the United States”, and also create family-friendly quarters, establishing a school room and a nursery.

Jackie believed the White House should reflect America’s artistic history and be furnished with antiques in the style of past presidents. Within a month of becoming First Lady, she formed the White House Fine Arts Committee to oversee the restoration, personally going through storage rooms to find forgotten pieces from former presidents, including Washington and Lincoln.

To avoid using public money, she co-founded the non-profit White House Historical Association in 1961 to fundraise for the project. The association produced the first official White House guidebook in 1962, with Jackie actively involved in its creation.

In February 1962, Jackie showcased the newly restored White House to the public in a CBS film, opening it up to ordinary American viewers for the first time. Her attention to detail and appreciation for art and design earned her global admiration, with a record audience of 80 million viewers. Jackie was given an honorary Emmy Award, and her efforts instilled pride in American history and culture.

Jackie also oversaw the creation of a natural sanctuary in the president’s Rose Garden, just outside the Oval Office, for greeting special visitors and large groups. She preserved period buildings like Lafayette Park, and was instrumental in creating a new national cultural complex. (She was also involved rescuing the ancient Egyptian temples at Abu Simbel from Aswan Dam floodwaters.)

Promoting arts and culture

The Kennedys introduced a youthful spirit to the White House, viewing it as a place to celebrate American history, culture, and achievement.

Jackie recognised the importance of elevating the role of arts, and in supporting artists, musicians, writers, and performers – actively planning state occasions where the White House hosted performances showcasing American talents. The White House thus became a hub where authors, scientists, artists, musicians and actors mingled with politicians, diplomats, and statesmen.

Diplomacy and international relations

As First Lady, Jackie served as an unofficial cultural ambassador, promoting cultural exchange and diplomatic relations during international visits and state dinners. Her intelligence, poise, and fluency in French, Spanish and Italian made her a valuable diplomatic asset, impressing foreign dignitaries and strengthening America’s global image and international ties.

Jackie made numerous official visits to foreign countries, both with her husband and on her own – surpassing any of the preceding First Ladies. Her ability to speak French and extensive knowledge of French history charmed the public during the Kennedys’ visit to France, leading President Kennedy to quip that he was “the man who accompanied Jacqueline Kennedy to Paris.” She received the French Legion of Honour, the first First Lady and American woman to be honoured with this distinction.

Even amidst the Cold War, Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev was taken with Jackie’s presence, and sent her a puppy as a gift, the offspring of Strelka who had gone into space during a Soviet space mission.

Humanitarian and social causes

Jackie Kennedy also utilised her position to advocate for humanitarian and social causes. She championed the rights of children with disabilities, raising awareness of their challenges and advocating for improved services and support.

Additionally she supported the arts in education, recognising the importance of nurturing creativity in young minds.

Style icon

Despite her numerous commitments as First Lady, Jackie Kennedy’s impeccable style became one of her most iconic legacies. Her timeless elegance, characterised by classic yet modern silhouettes and European-inspired designs, became known as the ‘Jackie Look’ and was widely imitated.

Jackie favoured clean lines, sheath dresses, pillbox hats, and oversized sunglasses, creating a signature style that women worldwide sought to emulate. Her preference for American designers also helped put American fashion on the international map.

Tragedy and legacy

After the death of her infant son Patrick in August 1963, Jackie became depressed, and accepted an invitation to her friend Greek shipping magnate Aristotle Onassis’s yacht to recuperate. This garnered disapproval, but Jackie returned in October 1963.

Her husband’s famous assassination a month later on 22 November 1963 left Jackie a widow aged 34, with two young children. Despite her grief, she demonstrated remarkable resilience under pressure, serving as a model of strength to the traumatised American people. She planned the president’s state funeral, earning global admiration for her courage and dignity.

Lyndon B. Johnson taking the oath of office aboard Air Force One at Love Field Airport, 2 hours and 8 minutes after the assassination of John F. Kennedy, in Dallas, Texas. Jackie Kennedy (right), still in her blood-soaked clothes, looks on.

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons / Cecil W. Stoughton / Public Domain

Following JFK’s death, Jackie continued contributing to cultural endeavours including the creation of the John F. Kennedy Library, and worked as an editor in New York City. In 1968 she married Aristotle Onassis, which received mixed reactions but reflected her pursuit of personal happiness and stability.

After Onassis’ death in 1975, Jackie pursued a successful career in publishing. She died on 19 May 1994 aged 64, having made an enduring impact as America’s most iconic First Lady.

John Randall Anthony Taraborrelli is an American journalist and author of more than 20 celebrity biographies including Frank Sinatra, Marilyn Monroe, Michael Jackson and Beyoncé. He is also an entertainment news reporter on programmes including Entertainment Tonight, Good Morning America, Today and CBS This Morning.
His book, Jackie – Public, Private, Secret is published by St Martin’s Press at Macmillan, and is published on 22 August 2023.

Cover of ‘Jackie: Public, Private, Secret’ by J. Randy Taraborrelli

Image Credit: St Martin's Press

The Romans never set out to create an empire but they did, from Britain in the north, to Algeria in the south, Spain to Israel, the Nile to the Rhine. Rome built its empire from the ground up, connecting people and places in a way that had never been seen before. One of the Roman Empire’s greatest legacies was its roads.

In our Book of the Month for January 2023 – The Road: A Story of Romans and Ways to the Past – Christopher Hadley takes us on a lyrical journey searching for an elusive Roman road that sprang from one of the busiest road hubs in Roman Britain. While time and nature have erased many clues, Hadley gathers traces of archaeology, history and landscape in a mesmerising journey into 2,000 years of history only now giving up its secrets.

But what difference did Roman roads make to the conquered lands they built them in? Here we explore the impact Roman roads had on the Roman Empire, in Britain, and their legacy today.

The impact to the empire

Roman roads still lie under many of our transport routes today. These roads served a crucial purpose for the Roman Empire – explaining not only how it grew so large, but also why it remained so powerful for so long.

Roman roads served more than simply for transport functions; they were a means of putting Rome’s stamp of authority across a new territory and then maintaining that territory. A road to a Roman was like a map is to us today.

Roman road in Pompeii

Image Credit: Peeradontax / Shutterstock.com

It’s easy to forget quite how revolutionary it was to go from a system of windy, local dirt tracks, to great paved highways striking out across the continent. The idea that you could start out in Rome, get on a road and end up in Spain or Greece, was entirely new. Like sinews crossing the empire, the Romans built a network of roads over 80,000 km long, not only creating a new geography, but introducing an entirely new Roman way of thinking about the world.

The significance of milestones

Roman roads had a series of ‘milestones’ that were set every Roman mile (about 1.5km), along all the major routes, which had the emperor’s name and titles written on them so people knew who was responsible for the road.

Underneath was a number, showing how many miles you were from the nearest staging point. This meant people knew exactly where they were – for the first time, people could place themselves in the world.

A symbol of power and a connected world

Once off the beaten track and in the countryside, life went on as usual, but where there were Roman roads, things changed significantly, sometimes not necessarily for the better. Roman roads could be built straight through someone’s land, and much like today, Romans also complained about bad food and exorbitant prices at the ancient equivalent of service stations.

For some though, these new roads were a cause for celebration, and helped facilitate the creation of new towns – such urbanisation was another marker of Roman presence on the landscape. All over the Empire, towns needed infrastructure, including roads and impressive aqueducts which helped to serve as a symbol of the Roman’s power and grandness.

Rome was at the centre of the Empire, but while roads led there, roads led away from Rome too, creating a joined-up world. They were a statement of Roman power and control, and a network of connectivity, joining up places that had never before been joined.

In this new connected world, the demands of the Roman state, including over a million consumers in Rome itself, could be met by producers many hundreds of kilometres away. This transformed the countryside.

The Roman Empire ran on olive oil (which was used for cooking, lighting, and as an equivalent of soap) and thus the hills of southern Spain became a giant olive farm. The production of olive oil and the resulting infrastructure this required such as warehouses, bottling plants or ports – made it a highly profitable industry, further interconnecting the empire.

The role of the military in road creation

While roads also acted as borders, their primary function was the transportation of goods as well as the Roman military. All the roads of the Roman Empire were built by the Roman military.

The first main Roman Road was the Appian Way, began by Appius Claudius Caecus while he was censor in 312 BC. At the time most roads were Etruscan and served the needs of their culture so roads that would facilitate Roman military transport were of the utmost importance to the Republic.

By the end of the Republican era, Romans were masters of road making and their roads branched out from the capital and extended throughout Italy. By 200 AD a network of ‘first class’ Roman roads spanned some 80,000 km in total. First class roads were characterised by a minimum width of 5 metres and a surface of drained stone.

The world’s first dual carriage way was also a Roman road, the Via Portuensis, which connected Rome and its port of Ostia.

Third-century Roman soldiers battling barbarian troops on the Ludovisi Battle sarcophagus (250–260)

Image Credit: Museo nazionale romano di palazzo Altemps, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

The golden milestone

The central forum of Rome contained a monument – the Millarium Aureum or Golden Milestone – erected by Rome’s first Emperor, Augustus in 20 BC. It is believed that the milestone listed all of the Empire’s major cities and their distance from Rome – a symbol of the Roman culture’s greatness in engineering, and where the idea that ‘all roads’ emanated from.

Roman Roads in Britain

For 2,000 years, the roads the Romans built have determined the flow of ideas and folktales, where battles were fought and where pilgrims trod. Almost everyone in Britain lives close to a Roman road if they knew where to look.

As Christopher Hadley references in his book, Watling Street was the first road scored on British land when the invading Romans arrived in Kent in 43 AD. Soon, campaign roads rolled out in all directions, forcing their way inland and as the Britons fell back, the roads followed, carrying troops, supplies and military despatches.

In the years of fighting that followed, as the legions pushed onwards across what is now England, into Wales and north into Scotland, they left behind a vast road network, linking marching camps and forts, and changing the landscape.

Roman lighthouse at Dover Castle, 3rd century. Dubris was the starting point of Watling Street to London and Wroxeter

Image Credit: Kamira / Shutterstock.com

In the four or so centuries the Romans were in Briton, they built some 3,000 kilometres of roads and tracks, allowing the flow of imperial troops and supplies, as well as assisting trade, industry and civilian travel. Some of the routes they carved out can still be followed today, marking the arteries of former Roman Britain.

After the Romans established a settlement on the banks of the Thames in around 47-50 AD, they constructed a narrow bridge over the river, and London was born.

The A10 is one of London’s oldest Roman roads, spanning from London Bridge to the port town of King’s Lynn, in Norfolk. Its path from London to Royston, in Hertfordshire, passing the towns of Ware and Cheshunt, largely retraces the route of an ancient Roman road: Ermine Street, an ancient pathway that led all the way to York in its heyday.

Ermine Street has now been weathered by time, turmoil and redevelopment, yet portions can still be traced today. Another example is Fosse Way, which once connected Roman Exeter with Lincoln and now follows portions of the A46, A37 and A30.

As in Britain, many other countries still bear signs of Roman roads which had the same impact of facilitating troops, supplies, trade and travel across the Roman empire. This interconnectivity was revolutionary, and showed foresight into how we live our lives today in our global economy.

Christopher Hadley is a journalist and the acclaimed author of Hollow Places: An Unusual History of Land and Legend. His book, The Road: A Story of Romans and Ways to the Past is our Book of the Month for January 2023. It is published by Harper Collins Publishers, and available to buy now.

Cover of ‘The Road’ by Christopher Hadley

In some instances, as was the case with the infamous Argyll vs. Argyll divorce, a fanfare of scandal and public opinion on par with a modern-day soap opera has followed, while in others, such as Wallis Simpson’s monarch-busting marriage to Edward, Prince of Wales, public fanfare has been accompanied by events that have altered the course of British history forever.

Here’s a breakdown of some of the most infamous duchesses in history.

Katherine Swynford, Duchess of Lancaster

Katherine Swynford, Duchess of Lancaster (1349-1403) was one of the most important female figures of the late 14th century. The daughter of Paon de Roet, a knight of Hainault (today part of Belgium), after being widowed, she became the mistress of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, fourth son of Edward III and one of the most powerful figures of late medieval England. They had at least four children, who received the name Beaufort, a surname given to lowborn children of the Crown.

Gaunt gave Swynford, then not yet a duchess, several estates, and provided her with a generous allowance. This caused public condemnation, and in 1381, the Duke was forced to break up their relationship.

However, in the early 1390s, the love affair between Katherine and John of Gaunt resumed their relationship. After the death of his second wife, Gaunt married Katherine in 1396, which was controversial among the English nobility. However, the same year, a papal bull was received that recognised the marriage and the children born of the partnership as legitimate.

Elizabeth Chudleigh, Duchess of Kingston

Elizabeth Chudleigh was born in 1721. Though her father was the Lieutenant Governor of the Royal Hospital at Chelsea, he died while she was young, leaving her without a dowry. Nonetheless, and it was because of other connections and her beauty that she became maid of honour to Augusta, Princess of Wales.

In 1744, she secretly married Augustus Hervey, later 3rd Earl of Bristol, who was at that time a libidinous naval officer. Both husband and wife lacked the financial support they needed, and the marriage was kept secret to allow Chudleigh to retain her position, which was only permitted for unmarried women. The marriage was unhappy, and the pair didn’t live together.

However, upon meeting the man she really wanted to marry, the Duke of Kingston, she had to find a way out of her first marriage. She first initiated a suit of jactitation against him – requiring Hervey to cease claiming the marriage to her, unless he could prove it. He couldn’t, and within a month of the court pronouncing her a spinster, she married Kingston in 1769, becoming Elizabeth Pierrepont, Duchess of Kingston-upon-Hull.

However, her day in court came in 1776, after her second husband’s nephew brought a charge of bigamy against her as a challenge to the Duke of Kingston’s will. Though she attempted to have the charge set aside, she was found guilty of bigamy at a trial by her peers at Westminster Hall that attracted 4,000 spectators. However, she had the last laugh: she sailed to Russia on a yacht named after her now-banned title, the Duchess of Kingston, and made friends with Catherine the Great.

Elizabeth Chudleigh at a ball in 1749

Image Credit: Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Georgiana, Duchess of Devonshire

In 1774, on her seventeenth birthday, the self-described beautiful, charismatic and intelligent Lady Georgiana Spencer married society’s most eligible bachelor, William Cavendish, the 5th Duke of Devonshire. The marriage quickly proved to be fractious: the Duke was an emotionally reserved man who didn’t have much in common with Georgiana.

However, the Duchess was the subject of much societal appreciation and gossip, and has been described as the Princess Diana of her age. In addition, she took an interest in political campaigning, chemistry and writing, alongside a less-than-positive ruinous gambling habit. Nonetheless, her home life was unhappy, and she entered into a menage à trois with her husband and the impoverished Lady Elizabeth Foster, whom she had befriended in Bath.

She was a friend of Marie Antoinette and a lover of future Prime Minister Charles Grey, the latter whose child she was exiled to France to give birth to. This exile from society marked the beginning of her decline. Ultimately, her health worsened and her gambling problem intensified, and she died aged 48. Her death prompted an outpouring of grief from both her family and the public at large.

Mary, Duchess of Sutherland

Mary, Duchess of Sutherland, originally married Arthur Kindersley Blair, a former Captain, in 1872. However, her husband mysteriously died in a shooting accident in 1883, leading to speculation that it was either suicide or murder that had caused his death, though the coroner’s official verdict was accidental death. She immediately became the Duke of Sutherland’s mistress.

Mary Caroline Blair or Mary Caroline, Duchess of Sutherland in 1890

Image Credit: Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

In 1889, the Duchess caused a scandal when she married the Duke, a mere four months after the death of his wife, since society convention had it that widowers should not marry sooner than a year after the death of their partner, and it also went against written advice to the Duke from Queen Victoria herself. Though the Duchess was now a highly-ranked member of society, she was not invited to any society event.

In 1892, the Duke died. The Duchess was due to inherit instead of the children, but the will was contested. However, the case was confused as the Duchess had the documents burnt, for which she was sent to Holloway Jail for six weeks. Eventually, an agreement was reached and the Duchess was given enough money to build Carbisdale Castle, which was nicknamed the ‘Castle of Spite’.

Wallis Simpson, Duchess of Windsor

Twice-divorced American fashionista Wallis Simpson caused a sensation when, having already been married twice, she divorced her second husband in order to become engaged to Edward, Prince of Wales. This created a constitutional crisis in the house of Windsor because Simpson had two living husbands. The result was that the king had to abdicate the throne in 1936 to, in his words, marry ‘the woman I love’.

After abdicating, Edward was made Duke of Windsor by his brother and successor, George VI. Wallis became known as the Duchess of Windsor, but was not allowed to share her husband’s title of ‘Royal Highness’. Before and during World War Two, the couple were widely suspected of being Nazi sympathisers, and made an officially unapproved visit to Adolf Hitler in 1937.

The couple lived as socialites between Europe and the US, and after Edward’s death in 1972, Simpson became reclusive. She remains a curious and controversial figure.

Edward VIII and Wallis Simpson on holiday in Yugoslavia, 1936

Image Credit: National Media Museum from UK, No restrictions, via Wikimedia Commons

Margaret, Duchess of Argyll

One of the most famous of the scandalous Duchesses from history, mega-wealthy Margaret, Duchess of Argyll was engaged three times before marrying her first husband, American golfer Charles Sweeny. However, after parting ways with her first husband, she married Ian Campbell, 11th Duke of Argyll, whose seat was the striking Inveraray Castle in Scotland.

The Duchess poured money into the renovation of the castle. However, the marriage broke down. Margaret unsuccessfully tried to become pregnant by someone else and pass the child off as an heir. Meanwhile, Campbell was an alcoholic with a short temper. In 1943, Margaret experienced a near-fatal fall down a lift shaft, which reportedly ‘turned her into’ a nymphomaniac.

The couple decided to divorce, which led to the high-profile Argyll vs. Argyll case in 1963, which featured pictures of the Duchess in a compromising act with a ‘headless man’, alongside a list of the 88 men with whom the Duke believed his wife to have been unfaithful with.

When the 3,300-year old tomb was found, it sent shockwaves around the world, turning the boy-king into a household name overnight and kickstarting an international media obsession that endures to this day. In her book, ‘Treasured: How Tutankhamun Shaped a Century‘, Christina Riggs offers a bold new history of the young pharaoh who has as much to tell us about our world as his own.

Tutankhamun ruled Egypt for under a decade, until his death aged around 19. After his death, records of his reign were erased – his legacy nearly lost to the sands of time. Since the tomb’s discovery, the circumstances surrounding Tutankhamun’s death have long-been debated by Egyptologists. Decades of research along with high-tech forensics offer multiple theories over what ultimately killed the boy-king, and his remains have been studied first-hand on four occasions.

There’s no doubt various medical conditions afflicted Tutankhamun during his lifetime, leading to speculation over to what extent these contributed to his death, or whether they were unrelated. Here we explore the different theories.

Murdered by a blow to the head?

An x-ray of the mummy from 1968 found inter-cranial bone fragments, showing a fracture to the back of the skull. This prompted theories that Tutankhamun was murdered with a blow to the head by his political enemies during a volatile time in Egyptian history – or had been kicked to the head by a horse or beast.

However this damage was later seen to have been either the result of extracting his brain as part of the embalming and mummification process, and/or from modern unwrapping of the mummy (and removal of his gold mask, glued tightly to the body) and postmortem.

Died in a chariot accident?

In 2013, because parts of the chest wall and ribs are missing from Tutankhamun’s body, a theory emerged that the king had died in a chariot accident. The thought was that the crash had also broken his leg and pelvis, and resulted in an infection and possible blood poisoning. Damage to the body in an accident may have forced embalmers to remove ribs and the heart to try and make the body resemble as normal an appearance as possible prior to mummification.

Tutankhamun did indeed have a leg fracture to his thigh bone, and several chariots were found in his tomb. Supporters of this theory note that Tut was depicted riding on chariots, and that he suffered from a deformed left foot, which could have been caused by a fall and breaking his leg.

Nevertheless, no records were found that such an incident had occurred. Furthermore, when the body was photographed at the time of Carter’s excavation in 1926, the chest wall was still intact. The damaged chest wall seems to have been inflicted by robbers during the theft of the beaded collar.

Injured in battle?

It had originally been thought that Tutankhamun had never actively been engaged in battle. Yet studies of decorated blocks scattered at Karnak and Luxor show that they appear to have come from monuments erected by Tutankhamun. The scenes depicted apparently show a military campaign in Nubia, and Tutankhamun in a chariot leading Egyptian forces against a Syrian-style citadel. These therefore give credence to the possibility that Tutankhamun may have been injured in a chariot accident, possibly on the battlefield.

Tutankhamun and his queen, Ankhesenamun

Image Credit: Tiger cub, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

A bone disease or inherited blood disease?

It’s also entirely possible the young king died from natural causes. Studies of DNA analysis and CT scans of the mummy and some of his relatives suggest that Tutankhamun was born with a cleft palate and a clubfoot, which would have caused him a lot of pain. This bone disorder could have been caused by Kohler’s disease (leading to poor circulation to the bones in a foot), or by the death of bone tissue. Many walking sticks (130) with evidence of wear and tear were found in Tutankhamun’s tomb which back this theory up.

Malaria?

It is very likely that death by malaria could have been the reason for Tutankhamun’s short life. Scientists found DNA from a mosquito-borne parasite that causes a severe form of malaria in his body – ‘malaria tropica’, the most virulent and deadly form of the disease. More than one strain of malaria parasite was present, indicating that Tutankhamun had caught multiple malarial infections during his life.

This would have weakened his immune system and interfered with the healing of his foot.

Close-up of Tutankhamun’s head

Image Credit: Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons

In-breeding in the royal family?

At the time, the Egyptian royal family married within their own family. Tutankhamun’s father, Akhenaten, is alleged to have married one of his sisters, and Tutankhamun himself married his own half-sister. This would have exacerbated any existing genetic problems in the family and also contributed to a general physical weakness or even a condition known as pectus carinatum – pigeon chest, with sagging abdominal walls and flat feet.

Broken leg?

2005 CT scan data revealed that Tutankhamun had suffered a fracture to his left femur (thigh bone). It was observed that embalming fluid had entered the break of the bone, indicating that the wound that caused the break was still open at the time of Tutankhamun’s death.

This suggests that the fracture had occurred during the king’s last few days of life. Whilst not enough to kill him outright, if the accompanying wound had become severely infected (and in the absence of antibiotics 3,000 years ago), this could have been the factor that ultimately lead to his death.

Alternatively, if his body was trying to heal the fracture, his immune system may have been impaired and he caught some other kind of disease that left no trace.

Other injury?

Parts of the chest wall, ribs and section of the left pelvis are missing from Tutankhamun’s body. Furthermore, the embalming incision is in the wrong place and larger than normal, and significantly, the heart was missing.

The heart would not normally have been removed as the Ancient Egyptians considered it crucial for the survival of the individual in the afterlife. Therefore did these anomalies indicate another injury, or was this also merely damage from the initial removal of the mummy from its nest of three coffins in its ‘Russian doll’ arrangement?

Conclusions

Whilst not fully proven, it seems likely that Tutankhamun was weakened by his broken leg (fractured thigh bone and its accompanying infected wound) possibly from a fall. This, combined with a malaria infection (highlighted by the traces of malaria parasites in Tutankhamun’s remains) most probably was the cause of Tutankhamun’s death.

Howard Carter examining the innermost coffin of Tutankhamun

Image Credit: Exclusive to The Times, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

Ultimately, no matter his cause of death, the discovery Tutankhamun’s 3,300-year old tomb created a huge level of interest in Tutankhamun – and indeed Egyptology – that endures to this day.

To this day, the boy-king captures our imagination about Ancient Egypt. In ‘Treasured’, Christina Riggs weaves compelling historical analysis along with tales of lives touched by an encounter with Tutankhamun, including her own, helping showcase just how Tutankhamun shaped a century.

Our October Book of the Month

‘Treasured: How Tutankhamun Shaped a Century‘ is History Hit’s Book of the Month in October 2022 and is published by Atlantic Books.

Christina Riggs is Professor of the History of Visual Culture at Durham University and an expert on the history of the Tutankhamun excavation. She is the author of several books, including Photographing Tutankhamun and Ancient Egyptian Magic: A Hands-on Guide.