Here we challenge 10 of some of the most common misconceptions about the Vikings.

1. They wore horned helmets

Contrary to popular belief, Vikings did not wear horned helmets. The horned helmet was a 19th century invention, popularised in German composer Richard Wagner’s ‘Der Ring des Nibelungen’ opera cycle – in the 1870s. The costume designer basically thought that horned and winged helmets looked cool, and had the Viking roles wear them, leading to one of the biggest myths in history. 

Archaeological evidence on Viking helmets is scarce, but there has never been a Viking helmet uncovered with horns on it. Depictions of Vikings from the period show them to be wearing simple iron or leather helmets. 

Horned helmets appeared in different cultures in the Bronze Age, but not in the Viking age, and would have been completely impractical in battle.

2. It began at Lindisfarne

The Viking Age, beginning in the late 8th century, saw migrations from Scandinavia (countries we now call Denmark, Sweden and Norway). It’s not fully understood why the Vikings ventured from Scandinavia so frequently, but factors may have included overpopulation, a lack of women to marry, and the allure of rumours of the wealth of Christian kingdoms. Scandinavia’s inhospitable conditions fuelled a constant struggle for resources, further prompting Vikings to engage in raids and expeditions.

The Anglo Saxon Chronicle, initiated in the late 9th century, details the Viking invasions. Although one year stands out as the pivotal year marking the start of the Viking Age: 793, marked by the Viking attack on Lindisfarne – the Holy seat of the Kingdom of Northumbria in northeast England – this wasn’t the first Viking raid on the British Isles, or indeed Europe (that had taken place in 787).

The Lindisfarne attack was seen as so significant as pagan invaders had desecrated the Northumbrian seat of Christianity. The Chronicle’s accounts of the event are likely to be biased as they were written by those being invaded, and could have served as propaganda against the Vikings. Nevertheless, shockwaves from this event reverberated across Europe, reaching the court of the Emperor Charlemagne.

Viking raids on England escalated after Lindisfarne, and became more organised by the second half of the 9th century. But in reality, Scandinavian trade and exploration had occurred earlier than this date. The first recorded Viking raid on England was in Portland, Wessex, in 789. It’s very likely that there were

3. Ragnar Lothbrok was a real person

Ragnar Lothbrok  is the legendary lead character in the HBO series Vikings and a figure in the Viking Sagas.

However, much of what is thought to be known about Lothbrok is shrouded in ambiguity. Information about Lothbrok primarily comes from Icelandic Viking Sagas, yet these were written in the 13th century, two centuries after the end of the Viking Age, leading to debates and doubts over their historical accuracy. Furthermore, the most famous sagas were written in Iceland – far away from where much Viking activity took place.

The sagas, although based on real people and events, were passed down generations through oral traditions and storytelling, making them susceptible to changes, embellishments, and partial fabrication. Many view Lothbrok’s adventures as mythical – potentially a combination of various historical figures into one heroic persona, leveraging Ragnar’s established reputation.

Theses sagas, while considered historical accounts, may also have served as entertainment. For example, the Tale of Ragnar Lothbrok mentions him slaying giant snakes (sometimes depicted as a dragon) and strangling a bear, reflecting the blend of history and imaginative storytelling.

Ragnar receives Kráka (Aslaug), as imagined by August Malmström

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons / August Malmström / Public domain

4. Leif Erikson reached America

The Icelandic explorer Lief Erikson is credited with reaching the North American continent around 1,000 AD. According to the Saga of Erik the Red, Erikson was on a mission to Greenland, but was blown off course and reached ‘Vinland’ (named due to the growth of wild grapes in the region). However, as this information comes from an Icelandic Viking Saga, it is therefore probably not totally accurate, more a suggestion of how the event occurred.

A further story, from Icelandic saga ‘the Groenlendinga saga’ (or ‘Saga of the Greenlanders’) is that Erikson learned about Vinland from Icelandic trader Bjarni Herjulfsson, who had sighted the North American coast from his ship 14 years before Erikson’s voyage, but had not stopped there. Again, questions arise over the accuracy of material from such Viking Sagas.

Nevertheless, in the 1960s, a Viking settlement known as  L’Anse aux Meadows was discovered by Norwegian explorers in Newfoundland, the most easterly province of Canada. It has been suggested this site was where Erikson landed.

5. Beserkers took magic mushrooms

There’s also the claim the Vikings had Berserkers – a kind of special forces that would be overcome with bloodlust and fought in a trance-like fury.

Claims that these ‘beserkers’ consumed magic mushrooms before battles to make them go ‘beserk’ lack evidence, and experts state there is absolutely no evidence of this.

6. There was one Viking Kingdom

The Vikings were never one unified kingdom, but rather comprised distinct groups from Norway, Sweden, and Denmark.

Norway’s rugged terrain, long coastline and fjords gave rise to a seafaring culture, leading Norwegians to explore and colonised the North Atlantic islands, including the Faroe Islands, Iceland, Greenland, and even voyaging to North America. 

Sweden, with a more temperate and flatter landscape along its south and eastern coasts, supported better agriculture and access to natural resources. The Swedes, also known as the ‘Rus,’ settled in present-day Ukraine and Russia, engaging with cultures from the Volga and Caspian Sea regions, as well as the Byzantine Empire. The Baltic Sea facilitated easy travel to and from eastern Europe, using vast rivers for trade.

Denmark’s relatively flat and fertile soil made it ideal for farming. The Danes established their monarchy in the 8th century, and consequently enjoyed political stability. Due to its location, Danish Vikings were often more involved in expeditions and settlements in Western Europe and the British Isles. 

During the Viking Age, the borders we recognise today didn’t exist, which fostered fluid interactions between these groups. Throughout Scandinavia, alliances, conflicts, trade, marriages, and shared religious and cultural practices all contributed to a complex interweaving of peoples.

The North Sea Empire of Cnut the Great, c.1030. (The Norwegian lands of Jemtland, Herjedalen, Idre and Særna are not included in this map)

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons / Hel-hama / CC BY-SA 3.0

The closest the Vikings got to having one Viking Kingdom was their North Sea Empire, under Cnut the Great (also known as Canute). The North Sea Empire, also known as the Anglo-Scandinavian Empire, was the personal union of the kingdoms of England, Denmark and Norway for the majority of the period between 1013 and 1042 towards the end of the Viking Age. This short-lived Norse-ruled empire’s components were only connected by and dependent upon the sea.

Sweyn Forkbeard, king of Denmark since 986 and of Norway since 1000, had been the first king to unite all three kingdoms when he conquered England in 1013. Yet after his death just 5 weeks later in February 1014, the realm was divided once more. Forkbeard’s younger son Cnut acquired England in 1016, Denmark in 1018 and Norway in 1028. 

At the height of his power, when Cnut ruled all three kingdoms (1028–1035), he was the most powerful ruler in western Europe after the Holy Roman Emperor. However this empire collapsed immediately after Cnut’s death in 1035.

7. Vikings were all warriors and raiders

The Vikings, though often portrayed as warriors and raiders, had a multifaceted society with a significant emphasis on trade and craftsmanship.

Operating without a coinage system, they traded based on metal weight and the purity of metals, particularly silver, creating a ‘bullion economy.’ Despite their trading prowess, a darker aspect of Viking commerce was the reliance on slavery. Captives from raids were often taken back to Scandinavia, with the slave trade extending to Eastern Europe and the Middle East.

Scandinavia had few towns; most people would have lived on farmsteads and small villages. The early Viking Age was politically unstable and often lawless, with power localised around chieftains and tribal communities – life for the average farmhand would have often been harsh and short. Institutionalised systems of law and government emerged in the late 10th century, establishing the national kingdoms of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, along with limited-scale urbanisation.

Hedeby Viking Museum, Germany.

Image Credit: Shutterstock

The Rigstula, likely written in the 10th or 11th century, outlined three social classes in Viking society. Jarls, the aristocracy, held the highest position, often as chieftains and commissioning expeditions. In the middle were karls or freemen, the majority of the population, engaged in farming, fishing, and craftsmanship. Thralls, or slaves, occupied the bottom tier, typically captured during raids but could potentially earn freedom.

Unlike many societies of the era, Viking women, excluding thralls, may have had rights and social freedom. Viking sagas depict women as strong and intelligent, with the majority working as farm-based housewives. Notably, women could request divorces, citing reasons such as sudden poverty, marital violence, or abandonment. Some women accompanied men on longer expeditions with the intention of settling.

8. Woman Warriors were commonplace

Whilst Viking poetry and sagas often depict strong and intelligent women who commanded the respect of the community, the term ‘Viking’ specifically referred to men. 

In reality, the majority of free women would have been farm-based housewives, yet there is also evidence from burials and the sagas that some women were involved in fighting. These Viking ‘warrior women’ are referred to as shield maidens, or the mythical Valkyries. However, just because the remains of women were found with weapons alongside them does not make them warriors.

For now we can probably assume that over 300 years of history, some women probably were involved in raids, but it was not commonplace. 

9. It all happened in Western Europe

Archaeological evidence reveals more Viking activity to the east of Scandinavia than in the west, challenging the common narrative that focuses on Viking invasions of Britain. The Swedes conducted voyages across the Baltic Sea into what we now call Russia, establishing the state of Kievan Rus’ in 882. The term ‘Rus‘ comes from the Old Norse word ‘Roa,’ meaning ‘to row’, and is connected to the modern country of Russia, where many Vikings settled. These expeditions primarily focused on trade, creating a vast network from the Black Sea to Finland.

The Vikings played a crucial role in rebuilding the European economy after the fall of the Roman Empire by establishing extensive trade networks. They set up settlements and trading posts in various European locations, including Spain, Sicily, and North Africa. Viking traders also navigated rivers in eastern Europe, connecting to the Black Sea, Constantinople, and the Islamic Abbasid Caliphate. This allowed them to access the Silk Road and trade diverse goods like amber, wool, fur, leather, fish and walrus ivory.  

Archaeological evidence, including a silver coin hoard that included Islamic coins found in England in 2011, illustrates the extensive reach of the Viking trading network.

10. They called themselves Vikings

Early Medieval Scandinavians would not have identified as Vikings, and there was no distinct Viking ethnic group. The term ‘Viking’ referred to a person going on expeditions, often abroad, with a broader meaning than just raiding. The term’s negative connotation emerged later in sagas, associating Vikings with pirates and predators. 

As kingdoms like Norway, Sweden, and Denmark developed, national identifiers became more common, but it is doubtful that individuals in the 11th century would identify as “Norwegian” or “Viking.” Instead, they likely referred to family names or local areas.

Erich Maria Remarque’s anti-war novel was published in 1928, and sold 2.5 million copies in its first 18 months, along with being made into another Oscar winning film version in a 1930 release. The phrase ‘All Quiet on the Western Front’, translated from the German ‘Im Westen nichts Neues’ (Nothing New in the West), has become a popular English idiom meaning little is happening.

The screenplay of the 2022 film version won a BAFTA for its adaptation of the novel, but there are some key additions and omissions to the original work. The memoir approach of the novel does not have much of a traditional plot, rather it is a series of vignettes, with the clearest progression being the one by one deaths of Paul’s friends in the trenches.

The Armistice Subplot

A key difference between the two works is that the ‘signing of the armistice’ subplot is completely missing from the novel. In the film, a beaten German political delegation head to Compiegne to push for a reasonable peace, with the French General Staff being less than willing to compromise.

This both gives a sense of the German army collapsing in 1918, and the pointlessness of the war continuing when the politicians are pushing for peace. The book is told completely from Paul’s perspective, and while he does get out of the trenches, the armistice is not mentioned until the final pages, and it is only spoken of near the end through army rumour.

The Homefront

There are two chapters in the novel where Paul returns to Germany for rest and recuperation. The first is on leave, where he also goes on a training course. In the second he is badly injured after an attack and is taken to hospital.

In the book’s home leave he tries to acquaint himself with his family. They are putting on a brave face with food in Germany running low – a consequence of the Royal Navy’s effective blockade of the country. His mother also hides her cancer diagnosis from Paul. Later on in this mid section of the book, Paul goes to a training camp on some moorland and encounters starving Russian prisoners.

The second homefront scene well illustrates the faltering conditions in Germany’s wartime hospitals. This is illustrated to some degree in the film through the horrendous blood washed sanatorium where both Tjaden and Katcinzky meet their demise. In the book Paul is taken back to Germany, while in the film he remains near the front.

Timing

While both the novel and the film are set in the later years of the war, most of the film’s action occurs in late 1918, when the German army was collapsing. The book is far more spread out, which allows for the return of Paul to the home front, as well as a brief romantic tryst he has with a French girl. In the film version, near the start of the 1918 part, one of his companions deserts with a French family.

The Horror of War: Coffin Shelling vs Tanks and Flamethrowers

The most shocking part of the book is when Paul’s unit find themselves under heavy shelling in a graveyard, and are forced to take cover amongst decomposing remains and coffins. This would be so gruesome on film that audiences might find it gratuitous, yet it is an appallingly powerful moment in the novel.

The midpoint of the Oscar winning film is one of the greatest war scenes of all time.

Image Credit: Netflix

The film is not, however, short of horrific moments. The most memorable is the stunning attack sequence about midway through, which shows the see-saw nature of attack and counterattack that infantry had to endure. It is possibly the greatest war scene in the history of cinema. Within it a man is horribly crushed by a tank, hundreds of men are cut down, and Paul’s friend Albert is brutally burned with a flamethrower. Paul then ends the battle in a shell hole where he kills a French soldier hand to hand – this scene is very similar in the book and film.

The Main Villain

The antagonist in the film version is the out of touch Prussian General Friedrichs, who pointlessly sends the broken company to their deaths on the very day of the Armistice. He works as a device to explain the disconnect between regular soldiers and the officer class, if perhaps a little blatantly.

In the book the antagonist is the furious parade ground Corporal Himmelstoss, who reflects the ludicrousness of the military regimen in basic training. The ex postman assumes an autocratic authority over the recruits, putting them through numerous absurd punishments for alleged disrespect.

The Ending

If I had one complaint about the 2022 film of All Quiet on the Western Front, it was the slightly over stylised ending. It is firstly somewhat unclear why Paul and Kat would risk their lives to attempt to steal a goose again given they know the war is coming to an end very soon. Meanwhile, the boy who shoots Kat comes out of nowhere. This isn’t in the book, although Katcinzky does die of a similarly small wound close to the end.

The final attack is also a little bit far into Hollywood territory. The German army was at the point of complete breakdown by the day of the Armistice, with thousands of men deserting every day. If a company of armed men were to receive such a ludicrous order from a General, then they could well have shot him and simply walked away from the battlefield. To give it credit though, it does lead to a high octane conclusion which reiterates the pointlessness of it all. Essentially, more men die to satisfy the nationalistic vanities of General Friedrichs.

In the book, Paul dies similarly late in the war, although not on the final day. The final paragraphs of the novel provide a nihilistic level of heartbreak:

He fell in October, 1918, on a day that was so quiet and still on the whole front, that the army report confined itself to the single sentence: All quiet on the Western Front.

He had fallen forward and lay on the earth as though sleeping. Turning him over one saw that he could not have suffered long; his face had an expression of calm, as though almost glad the end had come.

On the bell tower arches there are dates and names inscribed. At the chancel end, there are often patterns and shapes. The Troston Demon sits within them. Finding this little blighter is not easy though.

I cheated a little to get you this far, because the picture at the top is actually on its side. This is what the chancel arch, which contains the demon, actually looks like:

Zooming in a bit…

Seen it yet? Amongst hundreds of other little scratches there’s a more deeply inscribed pentangle. It appears this was scored by many parishioners to keep the demon ‘pinned down’. The pentangle is now thought of as a ‘Satanic Star’, but had positive connotations in the medieval period. Historian Matthew Champion explains below:

Thought to represent the five wounds of Christ, the pentangle was, according to the fourteenth-century poem ‘Gawain and the Green Knight’, the heraldic device of Sir Gawain – the Christian hero who personified both loyalty and chivalry. The poem describes the symbolism of the pentangle in great detail, taking forty-six lines to do so. The symbol is, according to the anonymous author of the Gawain poem, a ‘sign by Solomon’, or endless knot, and was the symbol engraved upon the ring given to King Solomon by the archangel Michael.

Matthew Champion, The Graffiti Inscriptions of St Mary’s Church, Troston

The rest of the demon’s form is around the pentangle. A pointy ear to the right, a thin hairy neck below and the facial features, complete with hideous tongue, to the left.

It’s like a medieval cartoon character. Given Saint Mary’s Troston was built in the 12th century, with wall art dating from the 1350s, it seems likely the demon graffiti was engraved around this time.

A Suffolk church gem – and there are many others!

Saint Mary’s Troston, where the Troston demon lives.

Image Credit: James Carson

Find our more about medieval religion

All photos in this article were taken by the author.

Set to be the UK’s biggest history photography competition, History Hit is calling on photographers to explore and capture the very best historic sites that the world has to offer. Whether it’s a ruined mediaeval fortress, a secluded religious sanctuary or an Iron Age earthwork, areas of historic significance are among the most stunning and provocative places to photograph on Earth.

The competition has two categories: ‘Historic England’ and ‘World History’. The Historic England category, run in partnership with Historic England, celebrates the best of England’s heritage. Whilst the World History category recognises photographs of sites around the world.

Photographers can enter their work until 18:00 BST 16th October 2022, via the History Hit website, with winners being announced on the 24th November. All entries will be judged by a panel of five judges, including TV historian Dan Snow, and will be based on their originality, composition and technical proficiency alongside the story behind the image and its historical impact. With the overall winner having their work showcased on the official competition website and receiving a cash prize of £250, category winners stand to win a cash prize of £50. Additionally, the Historic England category winner will also receive up to £100 worth of books selected from the Historic England imprint.

Dan Snow said: “Getting up painfully early and taking shots of beautiful historic sites is my hobby. Sometimes still images capture the essence of a place in a way that no other format can. Judging Historic Photographer of the Year has been one of my favourite tasks over the past two years. The creativity, talent and geographical spread of the photographers is jaw dropping. I have dashed off to visit several sites which I have learned about through the competition.”

Claudia Kenyatta, Director of Regions at Historic England added: “These awards celebrate the most fascinating and stunning historic places in the world and inspire other budding photographers to get involved. I’m delighted to be a judge once again. I’m really looking forward to seeing the array of images in the Historic England category, that capture people’s imagination and best describe England’s history, who we are and the achievements that have been made over the centuries.”

About Historic Photographer of the Year
The Historic England category, run in partnership with Historic England, celebrates the best of England’s heritage. The World History category recognises sensational photographs of sites around the world. Entries will be judged by a panel of five judges based on their originality, composition and technical proficiency alongside the story behind the image and its historical impact.

The Historic Photographer of the Year competition launches for entries on 1 August 2022. The competition is open to amateur and professional photographers over the age of 18 and resident in the UK. The overall winner will see their work showcased on the official competition website and will receive a cash prize of £250, while category winners stand to win a cash prize of £50. The Historic England category winner will also receive up to £100 worth of books selected from the Historic England imprint.

Entries close at 18:00 BST on 16 October 2022. Winners will be announced on 24 November 2022. For more information, see the terms and conditions.

With the collapse of the Eastern Bloc in the late 1980s, the Berlin Wall fell in 1989 and was largely demolished by 1990. Now its largest surviving stretch is the East Side Gallery – about 1.3 kilometres.

The gallery is an international memorial for freedom, featuring 105 artists from around the world. The murals along the stretch hark back to the oppression of communism, Germany’s difficult 20th century, along with the cosmopolitanism of the city of Berlin.

Here’s a selection of the stunning murals that feature in the East Side Gallery:

All photos taken by the author.

History of Grime’s Graves

Grime’s Graves was first named ‘Grim’s Graves’ by the Anglo-Saxons. However, it was not until the site was excavated in 1870 that they were first identified as flint mines which were dug more than 5,000 years ago.

During the Neolithic period, flint was widely used for making polished stone axes. It was later used for building and as strikers for muskets.

On the surface, the monument appears to be grassy structure with many dents. Underneath, however, the monument is large, with at least 433 shafts which were dug into the natural chalk having been identified thus far. The largest shafts are more than 14m deep and 12m in diameter.

Grime’s Graves today

Today, a small exhibition area illustrates the history of the fascinating site. Incredibly, visitors can descent 9 meters by ladder into an excavated shaft to see the jet-black flint.

The landscape is also worth wandering around, since it has been designated a Site of Special Scientific Interest and a habitat for rare plants and fauna.

Getting to Grime’s Graves

From the centre of Cambridge, Grime’s Graves are around an hour long drive via the A14 and A11 roads. From nearby Norwich, it’s about the same distance via the A11.

History of Saint Peter’s Church Wenhaston

A church has existed on the site since Saxon times when it was under the patronage of Blythburgh Priory. Most of the present building today dates from the 14th and 15th centuries, though it suffered badly under the Parliamentarians and William Dowsing during the English Civil War: windows were smashed, angels were removed from the roof, and the organ, altar and pulpit were removed.

The church today is famous for its extraordinary doom painting. The Wenhanston Doom was discovered in 1892 when the chancel was undergoing restoration work. Workmen removed some whitewashed boards which blocked the upper section of the chancel arch, and tossed them outside onto a scrap pile. It rained overnight, washing away the whitewash.

What this revealed was that the boards are covered in paintings made some time between 1500 and 1520. They depict the Day of Judgement, when the dead rise from their graves and souls are weighed to determine if they go on to heaven or are banished to Hell.

This is the ‘Doom’, or day of reckoning. These are a particularly special find due to their not being discovered by the Parliamentarians and William Dowsing, who would have destroyed them otherwise. They are also bright and vivid in colour due to being protected by the whitewash.

It has been argued that the painting is the finest Doom painting in the world.

Saint Peter’s Church Wenhaston today

Today, the doom paintings make the church a popular attraction. The rest of the interior is similarly striking, with the chancel roof being decorated with carved bosses, and colourful Victorian glass decorating the east window and 18th century marble monuments to the Leman family being prominently featured. The church is open daily to visitors and is a popular place of worship.

Getting to Saint Peter’s Church Wenhaston

From Norwich, the church is reachable by car in just under an hour via the B1332 and A144. If you’re feeling adventurous, it’s a two and a half hour cycle.

History of Dunwich Friary

Dunwich Friary was founded before 1277. However, it was originally located in a different location owing to the older friary being dissolved due to coastal erosion and subsequently moved inland in 1289.

Records indicate that the original site was home to 20 friars. However, it was later extended in the late 14th or 15th century, as a refectory and gateways were added. The site would have been generally much-loved by villagers, who could seek refuge, healthcare and religious instruction from the friars.

Only a small section of the original buildings, which would have been significant, remain. Many were destroyed during the Dissolution of the Monasteries, with remaining buildings being used as a house, town hall and jail at various times.

Dunwich Friary today

Today, the remains of the friary consist of a precinct wall, two gatehouses, some two-storey walls believed to be the remains of a cloister building and a possible refectory or infirmary building.

A large amount of paranormal activity is reported at the site, with reports of ghostly monks wandering around the site chanting their prayers being some of the most popular. There is also a famous Black Dog of Dunwich whose terrifying and ghostly image is said to reveal itself to unwitting passers-by.

Getting to Dunwich Friary

The friary is a three hour drive from London via the A12. From Cambridge, it’s a little less, at 2 hours by car via the A14 and A1120.

History of Orford Ness Nature Reserve and Cold War Pagodas

A large section of Orford Ness was purchased by the War Department in 1913, with the whole of the site acquired soon after. It was used as a closely-guarded military testing site. Top secret experiments were conducted across both World Wars and into the nuclear age.

Some of the most interesting remnants are two test labs – the so-called ‘Pagodas’ – which are well known coastal landmarks. The exact work still remains a secret, though more information may be made available over the coming years.

The site is also an internationally important location for nature conservation, since it contains a significant portion of the European reserve of vegetated shingle habitat.

Orford Ness Nature Reserve and Cold War Pagodas today

The atomic weapons establishment ceased work on the site in 1971. Today, the area is one of the most architecturally dramatic experimental war sites in Britain – or, indeed, the world – and is the only one in the country which allows public access thus far.

The public can enter the pagodas, which are located amongst the similarly enjoyable natural landscape which also makes the site so famous.

Getting to Orford Ness Nature Reserve and Cold War Pagodas

The closest city is Cambridge. It’s around a two hour drive from the city centre. Alternatively, take a train to Wickham Market, then take a 20 minute bus or car to the site.