In History Hit’s powerful documentary, American Revolution: Declarations of War and Independence, Dan Snow meets specialist curator of the Revolution 250 exhibition Dr. Graham Moore to examine these historic original papers. Together, they strip away centuries of myth to reveal a complex, transatlantic story of shifting identities, political gambles, and hidden ciphers. 

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Redrawing the imperial map

The story of the American Revolution does not begin with an innate desire for separation, but with a shared triumph. Following the conclusion of the Seven Years’ War in 1763, Great Britain found itself victorious but saddled with a massive mountain of war debt, along with a vastly expanded global empire, including newly acquired territories in Canada and Florida. Parliament’s solution was to bring the structurally disparate, self-governing 13 colonies under tight imperial control – and force them to pay for their own defence.

In the documentary, Dan and Graham examine a striking, original land agreement from upper New York between British colonists and representatives of the Mohawk Nation. Signed with clan pictograms of wolves and turtles, it illustrates Britain’s early attempts to enforce a hard colonial border along the Appalachian Mountains to protect indigenous alliances.

However, imperial management required direct revenue, leading to the fateful passage of the Stamp Act of 1765. By levying the first direct parliamentary tax on everyday items like legal documents and newspapers, Britain inadvertently alienated colonial lawyers and journalists. This sparked an ideological resistance under the battle cry of “taxation without representation,” setting the colonies on a path toward open defiance.

Dan Snow with Dr Graham Moore, Curator, Revolution 250, National Archives in Kew

Image Credit: History Hit

Mid-Atlantic crossroads: The lost chance for peace

By April 1775, political friction erupted into open warfare at Lexington and Concord. In the Archives’ conservation room, Dan analyses the original, meticulously penned British casualty return from that bloody encounter, signed by General Thomas Gage. 

Yet, the documents reveal that total war was not yet inevitable. In July 1775 – a full year before the push for independence – the Continental Congress drafted the “Olive Branch Petition.” Looking closely at the signatures of Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, and John Hancock, Dan notes the remarkably deferential language. The colonists still saw themselves as faithful British subjects arguing for their constitutional rights, explicitly praying for King George III to enjoy a long, prosperous reign.

Tragically, this message of peace crossed paths mid-Atlantic with the British government’s hardline response. Unwilling to concede to armed rebellion, George III issued the “Proclamation of Rebellion”, declaring the colonies to be in open treason and authorising full military force to suppress them. The window for a political solution slammed shut.

200 copies that changed the world: 4 July 1776

By the summer of 1776, compromise had transformed into a demand for complete severance. The documentary features an unparalleled look at one of the few surviving original broadsides of the Declaration of Independence, run off the Philadelphia printing press of John Dunlap on the night of 4 July 1776. Designed to be distributed quickly and pinned up on public walls, only 26 of these original copies survive today – and the National Archives holds the largest single collection of them.

One of the few surviving original broadsides of the Declaration of Independence

While the document contains the immortal philosophy of “life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness,” the bulk of the text is actually a highly specific legal indictment directly targeting George III. The copy Dan examines was intercepted and sent to London by Vice Admiral Richard Howe, who noted how the declaration immediately upended the geopolitical landscape – prompting General George Washington to refuse any British correspondence unless it formally recognised his independent military titles.

The logistical end of an empire

As the conflict wore on, the theatre of war expanded into a global struggle. The documentary masterfully illustrates the final military endgame in 1781 through a highly sensitive, coded letter written in a complex military cipher between British Commanders Henry Clinton and Lord Cornwallis. Using a cipher wheel to decode the text, the film reveals the exact, breathless moment the British realised Washington and a massive French army were closing in on Yorktown, trapping Cornwallis by land and sea.

Following Cornwallis’s inevitable surrender, the legal end of British rule was codified in the 1783 Treaty of Paris. Dan examines the provisional draft of the treaty, bearing the signatures of Benjamin Franklin and John Adams, where the British Crown finally recognised the United States as sovereign and independent states.

To conclude this fascinating exploration, the documentary unveils a jaw-dropping artefact recently restored by archive conservators: a gargantuan, meticulously detailed ledger documenting every single piece of army storage used by the British in New York during the final evacuation of 1783. Listing precise figures – from 7,000 hatchets to exactly 138,816 pins, alongside millions of pounds of beef and thousands of gallons of rum – this massive “18th-century spreadsheet” brings home the staggering financial and logistical cost that ultimately forced Britain to cut its losses and let go of the 13 colonies.

Dan Snow and Dr Graham Moore view the meticulously detailed ledger documenting every piece of army storage used by the British in New York during the final evacuation of 1783

By grounding the grand narrative of the war in the physical reality of the papers, ciphers, and ledgers that directed it, American Revolution: Declarations of War and Independence reminds us that while wars are fought on the battlefield, empires are won and lost on paper.

Watch American Revolution: Declarations of War and Independence on History Hit to see these fragile, world-changing documents up close and discover the hidden logistics behind the birth of the United States.

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In the compelling new documentary episode, Fort Laramie: America’s Road West, Don Wildman (host of American History Hit) journeys to the heart of Wyoming to peel back the layers of this iconic site. Far more than just a collection of restored buildings, Fort Laramie serves as a profound memorial to the “glittering misery” of frontier life, and the seismic cultural collision that changed the world of the Native American Plains Indians forever – forging the modern United States.

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The nexus of the Wild West

Between 1834 and 1890, almost every major character of the frontier drama passed through Fort Laramie’s gates: mountain men, fur traders, missionaries, Pony Express riders, soldiers, and Native American leaders.

The site lies at a strategic geographical crossroads – the confluence of the North Platte and Laramie Rivers. As Wildman explores, this location made the fort the essential resting point for those travelling the Oregon, Mormon, and California Trails. It is estimated that as many as a quarter of a million people passed through this outpost in search of a new life.

From fur trade to “glittering misery”

The documentary traces the fort’s humble beginnings in 1834, when a group of French-Canadian beaver hunters and American mountain men established a private trading post. For a decade, the relationship between European Americans and Native Americans was primarily commercial and relatively peaceful.

However, the discovery of gold in California in 1848 changed everything. The ‘trickle’ of migrants became a ‘flood’, with 30,000 fortune seekers passing through in 1849 alone. To protect these travellers, the US military purchased the fort. Wildman walks through ‘Old Bedlam’, the oldest standing building in Wyoming, to illustrate the life of the soldiers stationed there.

Park Ranger Clayton Hansen describes the soldiers’ lives as “glittering misery.” While the army maintained the pomp and circumstance of military drill on the parade grounds, the reality was a cramped, isolated existence in a climate that swung from 100°F summers to -40°F winters.

As Don notes, “Very rare are these kinds of places out here where you can actually see an embodiment of Western expansion in these buildings and walk around and feel what it must have felt like to be part of the Wild West.”

Don Wildman and Park Ranger Clayton Hansen visit ‘Old Bedlam’ at Fort Laramie – the oldest standing building in Wyoming

Image Credit: History Hit

The scar on the landscape

One of the most fascinating insights in the film comes from Dr Jeff Means, a member of the Lakota Sioux Nation and a Professor of History at the University of Wyoming. He explains how the mass migration didn’t just bring people; it physically severed the natural world.

The ‘Oregon Trail’ was not merely a wagon-width path; in some places, it was a half-mile-wide swath of churned mud and dust. Dr Means notes that the buffalo herds – the lifeblood of the Plains Indians – refused to cross this massive scar. This effectively split the great bison population into northern and southern herds, a biological disaster that devastated the nomadic way of life.

The broken Treaties and the ‘Grattan Battle’

The documentary dives deep into the high-stakes diplomacy and tragic misunderstandings that defined the era. Fort Laramie was the site of the great treaties of 1851 and 1868 – agreements intended to ensure ‘undisturbed use’ of land for Native Nations.

However, the film highlights how easily peace could shatter. Wildman recounts the Grattan Massacre (or the Grattan Battle) of 1854, an event sparked by the most trivial of causes: a single lost cow. What began as a dispute over a Mormon immigrant’s livestock ended in the deaths of a US lieutenant, his entire detachment, and the Lakota Chief Conquering Bear. This ‘first domino’ fell into a decades-long war for the plains, fuelled by retribution, broken promises, and the relentless drive of ‘Manifest Destiny.’

Dr Jeff Means, a member of the Lakota Sioux Nation and a Professor of History at the University of Wyoming

The legacy of the Plains

As the 19th century drew to a close, the strategic importance of Fort Laramie waned. The Native Nations were confined to shrinking reservations, and by 1890, the military marched out for the last time. Interestingly, the fort survived not through government preservation, but thanks to homesteaders who moved into the old military buildings, sustaining the site until its official restoration in the 1930s.

Fort Laramie: America’s Road West is an essential watch for anyone looking to understand the true cost of westward expansion. By interviewing descendants of those who lived through these events, Wildman ensures that the story is told from multiple perspectives – not just as a tale of triumph, but as a narrative of profound loss and survival.

Join Don as he walks through ‘Old Bedlam’ and the meticulously reconstructed post-trader stores to see what life was really like on the western frontier; hear from Indigenous historians who provide a vital counter-narrative to traditional frontier myths; and explore the stunning landscape where the Great Plains meet the Rockies, preserved as a ‘time capsule’ of the 1800s.

Fort Laramie stands today as a haunting reminder of a world changed forever. It is a place where diplomacy failed, where cultures collided, and where the road west was paved with both hope and heartbreak.

Watch Fort Laramie: America’s Road West now on History Hit and step into the eye of the frontier storm.

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In an age of rapid industrialisation, these thinkers turned inward – engaging with the era’s most pressing questions around female independence, civil liberties, and harmony with nature. Dan discovers the special places where their famous words were penned, which collectively helped shape the American identity – themes of the past that still inspire today.

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Inside Orchard House: the heart of ‘Little Women’

Dan’s journey begins at Orchard House, the weathered brown home where Louisa May Alcott lived with her parents and sisters in 1858. Here, he sits at the simple semi-circular desk where Louisa May wrote her compelling, quintessential American coming-of-age story: ‘Little Women’.

While the March sisters of fiction are beloved worldwide, the reality of the Alcott family was even more compelling. Guided by Executive Director Jan Turnquist, Dan gets a personal insight into Orchard House where he explores rooms preserved in time and filled with original intimate artefacts that reveal insights into the family’s life. Some of these include a whimsical hidden inkwell within an owl’s head (reflecting Louisa’s personal tastes), and the poignant keyboard belonging to Lizzie Alcott (the sister immortalised as the gentle, tragic Beth). Even the walls tell a story, adorned with the original sketches and paintings of the youngest sister, May.

Owl inkwell given to Louisa May Alcott

Image Credit: History Hit

Orchard House served as the model for the March family home in ‘Little Women’, a novel that famously champions a household fuelled by  love, creativity and tireless endeavour. At the centre of this world, Louisa placed a character mirroring herself: Jo March, the quintessential image of a strong-willed, independent, and creative young woman.

In the film, Jan explains to Dan how the real Alcotts were radical egalitarians. In an era defined by rigid social hierarchies, they held a steadfast belief in the absolute equality of all people, regardless of gender or race. This revolutionary spirit led Louisa’s father, Bronson, to found the Concord School of Philosophy, one of America’s first adult education programs, hosted right in the family living room.

Concord’s radical spirit

Concord’s reputation for independent thinking was forged long before the Alcotts arrived. In 1775, at the Old North Bridge, local militia faced British troops in the opening clash of the Revolutionary War – the “shot heard ’round the world.”

By the mid-19th century, that spirit had evolved into the Abolitionist Movement. The Alcotts didn’t just talk about freedom; they lived it. While residing at Hillside (now known as The Wayside), the family operated as a secret safehouse for the Underground Railroad, sheltering those escaping slavery on their perilous journey toward Canada.

Ellen Garrison: A civil rights pioneer

Concord was more than a literary hub; it was a sanctuary where previously enslaved people could find both community and a voice. Outside the historic Robbins House, Dan meets museum president Nikki Turpin to uncover the legacy of Ellen Garrison, an African American educator whose fight for equality predated the modern Civil Rights Movement by a century.

Growing up in the Concord School District, Ellen was a brilliant student, yet was not immune to the sting of prejudice. Aged 12, she was nearly forced out of a local town parade, only for a white friend to grab her hand so they could walk together in a defiant display of racial harmony, realised long before Martin Luther King Jr’s “dream” was ever spoken.

In 1866, Ellen took her activism to the national stage. Testing the new Civil Rights Act, she took a seat in a “whites-only” waiting area at a Baltimore train station. Decades before Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat, Ellen was forcibly removed for daring to claim her legal rights. Her story, preserved at the Robbins House, serves as a powerful reminder that Concord’s literary greatness was inextricably linked to its moral courage.

Dan meets with the Robbins House museum’s president Nikki Turpin outside Ellen Garrison’s house.

Living deliberately

No pilgrimage to Concord is complete without a visit to the tranquil shores of Walden Pond. In 1845, a 27-year-old Harvard graduate named Henry David Thoreau embarked on a radical experiment in self-reliance, moving into the woods to “live deliberately” and strip life down to its barest essentials.

Dan visits a precise replica of Thoreau’s 10-by-15-foot cabin. Contrary to the myth of the lonely hermit, Thoreau famously enjoyed “solitude but not isolation.” With the railroad only 300 yards away and a steady stream of visitors (including the Alcott family), Thoreau’s retreat was less about escaping society and more about finding a new way to inhabit it. Over the course of 2 years, 2 months, and 2 days, he observed the natural world with a unique blend of scientific precision and spiritual awe.

Walden Pond, Concord

Image Credit: History Hit

His masterpiece, ‘Walden, Or Life In The Woods’, wasn’t just a book about trees; it was a manifesto for the individual soul. Dan speaks with local expert Richard Smith to learn how Thoreau’s nature excursions with a young Louisa May Alcott provided her with the sense of escape and independence she so deeply craved. To truly step into Thoreau’s world, Dan even takes a bracing, chilly dip in Walden pond, experiencing firsthand the ‘refreshing’ morning ritual that Thoreau used to do.

A legacy for today

The authors of Concord were concerned with the questions that still haunt us: What does it mean to be genuinely free? How do we connect with a world that is moving too fast? Whether it is the domestic warmth of Little Women or the transcendental silence of Walden, these “small town” stories contain the biggest ideas in history.

Step back in time this season. Watch Big Stories from a Small Town: The Real Lives Behind Little Women and Walden on History Hit.

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In the third episode of Betwixt The Sheets’ Royal Sex mini-series, Dr Kate Lister is joined by Virginia Rounding, author of ‘Catherine the Great: Love, Sex, and Power’ and a literary critic specialising in Russian and women’s history, to delve into the extraordinary life of this Russian empress. Did Catherine the Great really die having sex with a horse? Was she involved in her husband’s death? And were her lovers selected for political reasons?

Prepare to challenge long-held myths and uncover the fascinating realities of one of history’s most powerful and controversial female rulers.

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From German Princess to Russian Empress

Born Sophie of Anhalt-Zerbst in Prussia in 1729, Catherine was a minor German princess never destined for imperial rule. Her path to power was unexpected, a result of intricate family connections and her own formidable ambition. It was her mother, Joanna, who leveraged a sentimental connection with Empress Elizabeth of Russia, who sought a suitable bride for her nephew and heir, Grand Duke Peter.

Aged just 14, Sophie (Catherine) arrived in Russia as Peter’s chosen fiancée. Peter, slightly older and an orphan, was delighted to have company, hoping for an ally against the Russian court.

Their marriage, when it finally occurred after much pomp and religious conversion, was far from auspicious. Catherine was led to the marital chamber only to find Peter absent, engrossed in his supper. Upon his eventual arrival, he simply climbed into bed, remarked on the servants’ amusement if they saw them, and promptly fell asleep. For nearly a decade, their marriage remained unconsummated.

Catherine, intelligent and ambitious, found herself isolated in the Russian court, enduring years of neglect and unhappiness. Yet this period of personal frustration proved to be a crucial crucible for her political development. She dedicated herself to mastering the Russian language, culture, and Orthodox faith, shrewdly cultivating relationships with key figures in the court and military that would later serve her well.

Tsar Peter III and his wife, the future Catherine the Great. He reigned only six months, and died on 17 July 1762.

Image Credit: Georg Cristoph Grooth / Public Domain

An awakening: love, politics, and motherhood

Empress Elizabeth, desperate for an heir, grew concerned about the lack of a child. It was ultimately revealed that Peter simply didn’t know what to do. Elizabeth then employed a shrewd tactic: a young widow was brought in to educate Peter on conjugal matters. Peter, it seems, proved a receptive student.

However, Catherine had already experienced her own “sexual awakening”. By her early twenties, she had fallen deeply in love with a courtier, Sergei Saltykov, her first true experience of physical affection. Later, Peter finally consummated his marriage with Catherine. Catherine fell pregnant following two earlier miscarriages, and when her son, Paul, was finally born, his paternity remained a mystery – was he Peter’s, or Saltykov’s?

Paul was immediately taken by Elizabeth to be raised as the future emperor, leaving Catherine isolated and deeply depressed. This period of intense self-education and introspection, befriended by figures like the British Ambassador Sir Charles Hanbury Williams, cemented her resolve to forge her own path.

Coup and courtly power

When Empress Elizabeth died in 1761, Peter finally became Tsar, but his reign lasted a mere six disastrous months. With little political instinct, he alienated the Orthodox Church and the army, even ceding territory during the Seven Years’ War. Sensing his instability, Catherine, having meticulously built a network of influence, seized her moment.

In 1762, supported by figures like Grigory Orlov and his brothers in the powerful Guards regiments, Catherine orchestrated a swift and largely bloodless coup d’état. Peter was swiftly deposed and, shortly thereafter, died under mysterious circumstances. Catherine was proclaimed Empress. Had she had a hand in Peter’s demise?

Her ascension immediately fuelled the scandalous rumours about her private life. 

Catherine II on a balcony of the Winter Palace on 9 July [O.S. 28 June] 1762, the day of the coup.

Image Credit: Public Domain

The imperial lovers: power and passion

Catherine’s long reign (1762-1796) saw immense territorial expansion of the Russian Empire, enlightened reforms, and a flourishing cultural court. Yet her succession of male favourites – including Grigory Orlov and Grigory Potemkin – often dominated public discourse. Unlike many monarchs who conducted affairs discreetly, Catherine’s relationships were often openly acknowledged, deeply entwined with political influence.

In the podcast, Kate and Virginia explore whether Catherine’s romantic attractions in her private life may have intertwined in a calculated political move to secure crucial support and enable her ambitious reforms, or whether they were a genuine quest for companionship and love.

They also delve into the personal lives of these influential figures and their complex impact on the Empress and the Empire. You’ll discover how relationships, particularly with Potemkin – her closest confidant until his death – blurred the lines between personal passion and statecraft. Even later in her life, Potemkin continued to play a unique role, even ‘procuring’ younger lovers for her – men who were both pleasing and teachable.

Grigory Potemkin

Image Credit: Public Domain

Servant of Russia?

Catherine the Great died in 1796. For centuries, the popular narrative of Catherine the Great has been dominated by exaggerated tales of sexual excess, most notoriously including the infamous rumour involving Catherine and a horse. The podcast delves into this pervasive myth, aiming to separate fact from fiction. By examining contemporary accounts, diplomatic reports, and Catherine’s own extensive correspondence, Kate and Virginia explore how such salacious rumours originated and why they endured, revealing the profound societal anxieties surrounding female authority in the 18th century.

Catherine the Great was undeniably a woman of intellect, ambition, and extraordinary will. She corresponded with Enlightenment thinkers like Voltaire and Diderot, reformed laws, founded schools, and dramatically expanded Russia’s borders. Her personal relationships, while fascinating, were but one facet of an empress who redefined Russian power. 

As Virginia suggests, Catherine “saw herself as a servant of Russia”, a civilising influence who embraced Enlightenment ideals – much of the stigma surrounding Catherine stems from the very fact she was a successful female ruler who defied 18th century expectations.

Join Dr Kate Lister on Royal Sex: Catherine the Great to navigate the intricate world of rumour, power, and passion that defined one of history’s most compelling monarchs. Uncover the true legacy of Catherine the Great – beyond the whispers and into the complexities of her reign.

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In the second episode of Betwixt The Sheets’ Royal Sex mini-series, Dr Kate Lister is joined by royal historian and Professor of French Literature at All Souls College, Oxford, Catriona Seth to delve into the surprising reality of France’s most famous queen. Was she truly the epitome of excess, or a young woman thrust into an impossible position?

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An Austrian Princess, a French destiny

Born in Austria in 1755, Marie Antoinette was the youngest daughter of Holy Roman Emperor Francis I and his wife, the formidable Empress Maria Theresa. Maria Theresa, a powerful ruler in her own right, meticulously orchestrated strategic marriages for her children, aiming to weave a vast network of European kinship. When France and Austria, once hereditary enemies, formed an unexpected alliance, Marie Antoinette, aged just 14, became the crucial pawn: destined to marry the Dauphin, the heir to the French throne.

Kate and Seth reveal how her proxy wedding in Vienna marked the start of a daunting journey. Weeks of travel across Europe led her to Versailles, a court vastly different from her Austrian upbringing. Despite speaking and writing French, Marie Antoinette, not an intellectual by nature (though a gifted musician), found herself adrift in a rigid, unfamiliar world. She sought refuge in music, fashion, and interior design, developing an influential eye for elegance that continues to inspire haute couture today. These interests provided an escape from a daunting reality: a husband seemingly uninterested in her.

Archduchess Maria Antonia depicted at age 13 in a 1769 portrait by Joseph Ducreux, which was sent to the Palace of Versailles in May 1769

Image Credit: Public Domain

The unconsummated marriage: a royal scandal

The most enduring mystery of Marie Antoinette’s early life in France revolves around her marriage to the young Louis. For an astonishing 7 years, their union remained unconsummated – a fact that became a subject of hushed whispers and diplomatic concern across Europe.

Professor Catriona Seth explores the factors behind this, from Marie Antoinette’s startling lack of preparation for married life, lacking any basic “birds and bees” education, to Louis’s own hesitations – more interested in hunting and locksmithing than his young wife. His own lack of understanding, or perhaps reluctance, regarding conjugal duties, further complicated the situation.

The intense pressure from her mother, Maria Theresa, who continually reminded her daughter of her duty to produce a French heir, only heightened Marie Antoinette’s isolation and precarious position. Versailles was a public stage, and the lack of an heir fuelled rampant speculation, undermining her reputation even before more serious accusations emerged.

It was only after direct intervention from Marie Antoinette’s adored older brother, Joseph, the Holy Roman Emperor, that the situation finally resolved. Joseph’s frank conversation with the young couple proved to be the ultimate catalyst, leading to the long-awaited consummation and, eventually, the birth of several children. For Marie Antoinette, motherhood became a deeply fulfilling role, a stark contrast to the distant upbringing of earlier French queens.

Marie Antoinette depicted with her three eldest offspring, Marie Thérèse, Louis Joseph and Louis Charles. Another child, Sophie Beatrix, was born in 1787

Image Credit: Public Domain

The queen of excess?

As Queen, Marie Antoinette gained a notorious reputation for extravagance and excess. But how much of this was true, and how much was revolutionary propaganda? Seth explores Marie Antoinette’s genuine passion for fashion and jewellery – often her only true personal possessions as a foreign bride, and how her elaborate hairstyles referenced current events.

Ironically, as queen, Marie Antoinette also sought to carve out a rare space for intimacy and privacy, building a small, personal retreat in the grounds of Versailles. This desire for a simpler, more private life, normal in Austria, was seen by the French public as suspicious, fuelling rumours of scandalous behaviour and contributing to the perception that she was “out of touch” with her suffering people, even though her private letters suggest genuine concern for the poor.

Scapegoat and icon

As anger and revolutionary fervour swelled across France, Marie Antoinette became a potent target. The podcast explores the barrage of salacious, often pornographic, pamphlets that viciously attacked her reputation, accusing her of countless affairs. While historical evidence for these dalliances is largely absent, except for lingering questions around her close bond with the Swedish nobleman Count Axel von Fersen, these rumours served a clear political purpose: to weaken the King by portraying his Queen as immoral and disloyal. Her Austrian heritage also made her an easy scapegoat.

The revolution ultimately stripped her of everything. After King Louis XVI’s execution in January 1793, Marie Antoinette endured brutal imprisonment, separation from her children, and a sham trial. Despite the terror, she faced her end with remarkable dignity, heading to the guillotine on 16 October 1793.

Marie Antoinette became a symbol of everything the revolutionaries despised in the aristocracy. But could she have done anything to stop the revolution or change her fate? Perhaps not. Yet, her visibility, particularly her distinct style, ensured her extraordinary recognition as a fashion icon, even in death.

Listen to Royal Queen Sex: Marie Antoinette to uncover the intimate life, political struggles, and enduring myths of one of history’s most iconic and tragic queens.

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In our special documentary, American Revolution: This is War! Bunker Hill and the Birth of the US Army, History Hit marks the 250th anniversary of the Siege of Boston (1775-1776), the foundational chapter in the eight-year fight for American Independence.

Join Dan Snow as he investigates the war’s first pitched battle – Bunker Hill – a bloody day that proved a hollow and costly British victory. Dan speaks to experts and explores this critical turning point, when skirmishes fought by colonial militia evolved into a fully-formed military campaign, as colonial forces laid siege on Boston for 11 months while the British Army tried desperately to maintain control of the town and its vital harbour. 

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Following the initial clashes at Lexington and Concord, British forces under General Thomas Gage found themselves effectively trapped in Boston. Thousands of unorganised yet determined colonial militiamen from across New England converged around the city, loosely containing the British. Boston, a vital port and a symbolic hotbed of revolutionary sentiment, became the focal point. The British desperately sought to maintain control of the town and its crucial harbor.

Bunker Hill

Recognising the strategic importance of the hills surrounding Boston, colonial leaders decided to fortify Breed’s Hill (mistakenly named “Bunker Hill” in historical accounts) on the Charlestown Peninsula. On the night of 16 June 1775, 1,000 militiamen, led by Colonel William Prescott, hastily constructed earthen fortifications. The next day, some 2,200 British regulars, under Major General William Howe, launched a frontal assault.

The battle itself was a bloody affair. Colonial defenders held their ground against two British charges, inflicting devastating casualties. The Redcoats, advancing in disciplined ranks, were met with lethal volleys. Only on the third assault, as the Americans critically ran out of ammunition, did the British finally overrun the fortifications.

Though a tactical victory for the British, who secured the hill, it was a Pyrrhic victory of immense proportions. Over 1,000 British soldiers were killed (226) or wounded (828) – nearly half their engaged force. As Dan says, “It was the highest casualty count they suffered in a single encounter in the entire Revolutionary War”. This was compared to approximately 450 colonial casualties, of whom 140 killed mostly during the final stand and retreat.

This staggering cost sent shockwaves through the British command, shattering any illusions of a swift and easy suppression of the rebellion. In fact, they were trapped.

The Battle of Bunker Hill

Image Credit: Public Domain

The birth of an army and the long siege

Bunker Hill proved a profound turning point. For the inexperienced colonial forces, it was a massive morale boost. They had stood toe-to-toe with the world’s most formidable army and inflicted crippling losses, demonstrating that patriotic dedication, even from untrained militia, could indeed challenge superior military might. News of the battle galvanised support across the 13 colonies, uniting them in a shared sense of purpose.

Crucially, Bunker Hill underscored the urgent need for a more organised and disciplined fighting force. Just days after the battle, the Second Continental Congress, meeting in Philadelphia, took a decisive step, formally establishing the Continental Army and, on 15 June 1775, appointed a Virginian, George Washington, as its Commander-in-Chief. Washington arrived in Cambridge in early July, facing the daunting task of transforming a collection of disparate militias into a cohesive fighting machine.

As military historian Jonathan Bratten explains to Dan, “Washington’s greatest genius through the entire war and at Bunker Hill was in keeping the army together, and in keeping an army in the field.” 

The Siege of Boston, which had begun informally, now intensified under Washington’s command. For the next 11 months, the Continental Army tightened its grip around the city. The British, confined to the peninsula, relied entirely on sea lines for supplies and reinforcements, making them vulnerable. Washington’s primary challenge was acquiring sufficient artillery to dislodge the entrenched British.

Gilbert Stuart Williamstown Portrait of George Washington

Image Credit: Picryl / Public Domain

The evacuation of Boston

The stalemate finally broke in early 1776, when, in a remarkable feat of logistics, Colonel Henry Knox successfully transported 59 cannons and other military supplies, captured from Fort Ticonderoga, over 300 miles of frozen terrain to Boston. On the night of 4 March Washington’s troops, under cover of darkness, fortified Dorchester Heights, overlooking Boston Harbor. By dawn, the British awoke to find American cannons aimed directly at their positions and ships.

Recognising the untenable situation, and faced with the prospect of another costly assault, or the destruction of his fleet, General Howe ordered the withdrawal. On 17 March 1776 – a day now celebrated as Evacuation Day – over 11,000 British soldiers and hundreds of Loyalists boarded ships and sailed for Halifax, Nova Scotia.

The Siege of Boston, culminating in this strategic American victory, marked a profound shift. Bunker Hill had shown the colonists could fight; the subsequent siege demonstrated they could sustain a military campaign and achieve strategic objectives. The transformation from scattered militia skirmishes to a unified, professional army had begun, setting the stage for a prolonged war for independence.

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The accurate value and quality of coins produced by The Royal Mint is determined through the Trial of the Pyx. Here we explore how coins are tested, and the role the Trial plays in ensuring The Royal Mint maintains the highest level of quality when producing the nation’s coinage.

The Trial of the Pyx is a procedure which has taken place since 1282 and is an annual judicial ceremony to test and ensure that The Royal Mint’s newly minted coins meet the required standards.

The Trial is held every February and is judged by a jury of over six assayers from the Company of Goldsmiths, who are independent from The Royal Mint. After the coins have been inspected and judged for their weight, diameter, and composition, the verdict is then read aloud by the Clerk of the Goldsmiths’ Company at the instruction of the Senior Master and Queen’s Remembrancer – an ancient post created in 1154 by Henry II, and the oldest judicial position still in existence.

This verdict is received by the Chancellor of the Exchequer under their capacity of Master of the Mint. In the past, if the coinage is found to be substandard, the trial carried a variety of punishments for the Master of the Mint, including a fine, removal from office, or imprisonment. However, these do not happen today.

Isaac Newton and the 1710 Trial

One of the most famous, and most controversial, examples surrounding the inaccurate value of coins comes from the 1710 Trial of the Pyx, where Isaac Newton’s coins were found to not contain enough gold.

In 1696, Sir Isaac Newton moved from his post at Cambridge University to London to first become the Warden of The Royal Mint, and three years later, the Master of the Mint.

Portrait of Sir Isaac Newton

Image Credit: The Royal Mint

The role of Master of the Mint had traditionally been a ceremonial one, however, Newton wanted to make a contribution. He encouraged the engravers to up-skill themselves by taking on outside work, increasing the quality of their coins which also made them more difficult to counterfeit. Newton also started fastidiously pursuing counterfeiters through the courts which resulted in The Royal Mint gaining the reputation of one of the most trustworthy and accurate Mints in the world.

Note from Sir Isaac Newton re a Draft Submission

Image Credit: The Royal Mint

Therefore, when Newtons coins were judged as being below the required standard and not containing enough gold in the 1710 Trial of the Pyx, Newton reacted angrily, and set about proving the judgement procedure as faulty.

The coins in question had been compared with a new gold Trial of the Pyx Plate, introduced in 1707, and Newton managed to prove that it was in fact the plate that contained too much gold, and therefore his coins were not below the required standard. As a result, the earlier trial plate of 1688 was returned to use.

1688 Gold Trial Plate

Image Credit: The Royal Mint

Over 50 countries were affected, yet this revolutionary wave occurred without any kind of central international coordination. No single cause or theory can explain why they transpired; the sentiments that fuelled this year of tumultuous change were instead sparked by a confluence of various social, economic, and political factors, including widespread dissatisfaction with autocratic regimes, economic hardships, demands for political reforms, and desires for national unification and independence.

However, although widespread, many of these revolutions fizzled out or collapsed within a year. What triggered them, was anything achieved, and why did many of the revolutions end relatively swiftly?

Causes:

Political repression and autocratic rule

Many European countries were governed by autocratic monarchies or regimes that limited civil liberties and political participation. Citizens had grown increasingly frustrated by their lack of representation, and of oppressive governance and censorship, leading to a widespread demand for democracy over monarchy.

Economic hardships

A series of poor harvests since 1839, economic recessions, and industrialisation-related changes had meant decreased investment in agriculture, leading to widespread poverty, unemployment, rising food prices and shortages.

The working class and urban populations faced dire living conditions, contributing to social unrest and anger at how neglectful their country’s monarch could be.

Ideological stirrings

Ideas of liberalism, nationalism, and socialism were gaining traction across Europe. Calls for individual rights, constitutional reforms, national identity, and social equality spread through intellectual circles, influencing people to demand political change and other liberties such as freedom of the press.

The revolutionary barricades in Vienna in May 1848

Desire for national unification and independence

Many regions within Europe were fragmented politically, comprising several states or having provinces under foreign rule. Indeed France’s Napoleon Bonaparte made his brother King of Spain. Movements aimed at national unification, independence, or autonomy grew stronger, especially in Italy, Germany, Hungary, and Poland, fostering a strong sense of nationalism.

Inspiration from previous revolutions

The success of previous revolutions, notably the French Revolution of 1830, inspired people to believe in the possibility of effecting change through collective action.

When the February Revolution broke out in France in 1848, resulting in the overthrow of King Louis-Philippe and the establishment of the French Second Republic, it acted as a catalyst, sending a powerful message across Europe, from the Italian and German states to the Habsburg Empire and other regions. People in other countries saw this as an opportunity to demand similar reforms and challenge existing authoritarian regimes, sparking uprisings across the continent.

Social inequality and class struggles

Social disparities between the aristocracy and the lower classes fuelled discontent.

Urban populations had risen sharply, and the long working hours and inability to buy food or pay rent for the slums the working-class and urban poor lived in prompted them to seek better working conditions, fair wages, and representation in the face of industrialisation’s impact on labour. 

Meanwhile the middle-classes feared the new urban arrivals, concerned that the cheaper, mass-produced goods facilitated by industrialisation now replaced traditional skilled artisan products. Indeed many of the revolutions’ leaders were middle-class workers, who felt misunderstood and disconnected from their rulers and their comparatively lavish lives.

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  Illustration of 19th century slum (Dudley St., Seven Dials, 1872)

  Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons / Wellcome Images Photo number: L0000881 / CC BY 4.0

Achievements

The revolutions of 1848 were diverse in nature, with each country facing its unique set of grievances and aspirations. Although the uprisings didn’t result in lasting and widespread changes at the time, they did plant the seeds for future movements advocating for democracy, national unity, and social reforms in Europe. Outcomes varied region to region and many of the revolutions were considered failures, but there were a few notably significant events.

The February Revolution in France led to the establishment of the French Second Republic, and Denmark also experienced an end to its 200 year old monarchy.

In Italy, 1848 marked a series of uprisings against Austrian and other foreign rule, as well as efforts for national unification under figures like Giuseppe Garibaldi and Giuseppe Mazzini. Similarly, the German states witnessed widespread protests, demands for constitutional reforms, and aspirations for a unified Germany, culminating in the Frankfurt Parliament’s attempts to create a German national assembly.

The Habsburg Empire faced intense unrest, particularly in Hungary, where demands for autonomy and reforms led to clashes with the Austrian monarchy. The Hungarian Revolution, led by figures like Lajos Kossuth, sought political freedoms and autonomy within the empire. However, serfdom was put to an end in Austria and Hungary.

Elsewhere in Europe, similar movements for liberal reforms and national independence emerged. In Poland, an uprising against Russian rule aimed at regaining independence, although it was eventually suppressed. Revolts and demands for change also occurred in regions like the Czech lands, Romania, and the Balkans.

Challenges

Despite the initial enthusiasm and hopes for change, many of these revolutions faced significant challenges. Internal divisions among revolutionary factions, conflicting interests, and the reluctance of conservative forces to relinquish power led to the suppression of several uprisings. By the end of 1848 and into 1849, many of the revolutions had been quelled, and conservative forces regained control across Europe. Thousands of people also lost their lives in these conflicts.

Nonetheless, the events of 1848 had a lasting impact, serving as catalysts for future movements advocating for liberal reforms, national unification, and democratic governance. 1848 marked a significant turning point in European history, highlighting aspirations for change and setting the stage for subsequent revolutions and political transformations in the years to come.

The event ignited a spirit of resistance among patriots throughout the 13 colonies, galvanising their fight for independence and eventually leading to the American revolution. What factors led to the Boston Tea Party, and why did it have such significance?

Seven Years War (1756-1763)

Although the Seven Years War (known in the US more commonly as the French and Indian War) encompassed multiple nations, the main belligerents were the British and French Empires. Seeking territorial expansion across several continents, both suffered significant casualties and accumulated substantial debt to fund their protracted struggle for territorial dominance.

The most pivotal battleground was in North America, which in 1756 had been geographically split between the empires of the British, French and Spanish. Through costly yet key victories at Quebec and Fort Niagara, the British emerged triumphant, annexing substantial swathes of previously held French territory in Canada and the Mid-West via the Treaty of Paris in 1763.

While this British victory had eradicated the immediate French and Native Indian threat (to some extent) to Britain’s 13 American colonies, military and naval expenditures had nearly doubled Britain’s national debt to £133 million. Consequently, the British thought it fair to impose higher taxes on its 13 colonies, having accrued the debt fighting wars on the colonists’ behalf.

The colonists disagreed, and this colonial taxation brought about heightened economic hardship in the US, underscoring the cultural disparities and ideological differences between the colonists and the British mainland.

Taxes and duties

In 1765, Britain introduced the Stamp Act, which imposed a tax on printed materials – i.e. virtually every piece of paper used in the colonies. Colonists vehemently protested the imposition of new direct taxation on these, compelling the British Government to eventually repeal the legislation a year later. However, further taxes followed.

The rallying cry of “No taxation without representation” became an iconic slogan, succinctly summarising colonial outrage and objection at being taxed against their will and without representation in Parliament.

The introduction of the Townshend Duties in 1767 and 1768 imposed new forms of indirect taxation on imported goods such as glass, paint, paper, lead and tea. The revenue raised helped pay the salaries of colonial governors and judges – perceived by the colonists as the British buying their loyalty.

The imposition of these duties sparked fury in the colonies, becoming the main root of spontaneous and violent opposition. Fuelled by propaganda leaflets and posters, such as those created by Paul Revere, colonists engaged in riots and organised merchant boycotts. Eventually, the colonial response was met with severe repression, with British troops sent to enforce the duties.

Boston Massacre (1770)

Just a year after the imposition of the Townshend Duties, the governor of Massachusetts urged the remaining 12 colonies to join his state and unite in opposition against the British, advocating for a boycott of their goods. Simultaneously, a riot erupted in Boston over the seizure of a ship, aptly named Liberty, involved in smuggling.

Despite these signs of unrest, there was no indication that the colonies were seriously contemplating fighting their British rulers until the infamous Boston massacre.

In March 1770, a group of redcoats guarding the Boston Customs House were accosted by a large crowd in the city, and bombarded with snowballs and more dangerous missiles as the cold and irate townspeople vented their anger toward the British soldiers. Amidst the chaos, they suddenly opened fire after a soldier was knocked down, resulting in the British shooting dead 5 colonists and injuring 6 others.

The Boston Massacre, 1770

Image Credit: Paul Revere, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons

While the Boston Massacre is often portrayed as the inevitable start of a revolution, it initially prompted the British government to retract the Townshend Duties, except the tea tax, briefly suggesting that the crisis had abated. However, radicals such as Samuel Adams and Thomas Jefferson sustained the simmering resentment, keeping the revolutionary fervour alive.

What happened at The Boston Tea Party?

The British government failed to make further political concessions, missing the chance to avert rebellion. Instead, increasing widespread agitation by organised groups became widespread. In 1772, a British ship enforcing unpopular trade regulations was set ablaze by enraged patriots, and Samuel Adams initiated the creation of Committees of Correspondence – a network of rebels across all 13 colonies. 

However, it was in December 1773 when the most iconic and blatant demonstration of anger and resistance took place.

In May 1773, the British parliament had passed the Tea Act, which permitted the British East India Company to sell tea to the colonies duty-free, and much cheaper than other tea companies, yet still tax the tea once it reached colonial ports. These rising duties and perceived assault on liberties exacerbated tensions.

In November and December that same year, the first shipments of tea arrived in Boston, New York, Philadelphia and Charleston. While most governors turned the ships around or unloaded the tea into a holding warehouse to deescalate tensions, Thomas Hutchinson, the Governor of Massachusetts, refused to allow the ships to return to Britain, demanding the tea be unloaded and sold with the duties collected.

“The Destruction of Tea at Boston Harbor”, lithograph depicting the 1773 Boston Tea Party

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons / Nathaniel Currier, 1896 / Public Domain

Subsequently, after a meeting of the Sons of Liberty network on the evening of 16 December 1773, a group of around 100 colonists, led by Samuel Adams, boarded the East India Company‘s 3 trade ships (the Dartmouth, Eleanor, and the Beaver), that were docked at Griffin’s Wharf in Boston’s harbour, and poured 342 chests of British tea that belonged to the East India Company (weighing 46 tonnes and worth close to $1,700,000 in today’s currency) into the sea.

News of the dramatic yet largely peaceful incident spread quickly, and while in sympathy with the colonists, some prominent figures thought it wrong; George Washington believed private property was sacrosanct, and Benjamin Franklin insisted the British East India Company be reimbursed.

(The act itself, now famously termed the ‘Boston Tea Party’, wasn’t immediately known as such. The term was first used in print around 1826, but it took until the 1830s until it became a common way of describing the event – perhaps in a satirical manner, or to downplay any associations of violence.)

Consequences

Rather than appease the rebels, Britain’s parliament responded with a series of restrictive Coercive Acts (Intolerable Acts) on Massachusetts in early 1774, aimed at punishing Massachusetts. These measures – notably the Boston Port Act (which effectively shut down Boston’s port to all trade until the East India Company was reimbursed for the tea thrown in the harbour) – intensified colonial unity and led to the formation of the First Continental Congress in September 1774.

Here, delegates including George Washington, Samuel Adams and John Adams discussed countering Britain’s aggression, and how they could coordinate resistance against it. In the ensuing ‘Sussex Resolves’, citizens were ordered not to obey the ‘Intolerable Acts’, to boycott imported goods from Britain, and to raise a militia.

In April 1775 the first shots of the American War of Independence were fired as British troops clashed with militia men at the twin battles of Lexington and Concord. British reinforcements landed in Massachusetts and defeated the rebels at Bunker Hill in June – the first major battle. After the British withdrew into Boston, they were besieged by an army commanded by General, and future president, George Washington.

On 26 October 1775 King George III declared the American colonies to be in a state of rebellion, authorising the use of force against the rebels for the first time.

Declaration of Independence, painted by John Trumbull.

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain

By 4 July 1776, the Second Continental Congress had adopted the Declaration of Independence, proclaiming the separation of 13 American British colonies from Britain. This enabled the colonists to solidify an official alliance with France, and obtain French assistance, paving the way for their future victory.