For lovers of well-preserved Roman architecture Qasr Bashir is certainly a hidden gem. Standing within the solid walls of Qasr Bashir, you will certainly be able to feel the living history of life on the edge of the Roman Empire.

Occupied by many civilisations over time – including the Armenians, Greeks, Byzantines, Ayyubids and Ottomans – most of what stands today is thought to originate from the Ayyubid period.

Aleppo Citadel history

Around the middle of the 3rd millennium BC, a temple to the ancient Storm God Hadad stood on the citadel hill. The first use of the hill as a fortification however, in the form of a Macedonian acropolis, was probably during the reign of Seleucus I Nicator in the 4th and 3rd centuries BC. A temple once again stood on the hill – this time dedicated to Zeus – visited by the Roman Emperor Julian in 64 BC.

During the 7th century the population of Aleppo is said to have taken refuge in the citadel because the city walls were in a deplorable state. Unfortunately, invading Muslim troops took advantage of this weakness in 636 AD, when Aleppo was conquered. Later repairs were made to the citadel after a major earthquake.

In 944 the Muslims of the Hamdanid dynasty took Aleppo and made it their capital city, strengthening Aleppo Citadel only for the city to be largely destroyed in 962 when the Byzantines attacked.

In 1260 Aleppo Citadel was taken by the Mongols under Hulagu Khan and again in 1400 – this time under Timur. Almost all the buildings inside the citadel were destroyed.

Aleppo Citadel today

Still dominating the city, the Citadel is part of the Ancient City of Aleppo which has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1986. During the 2010s, the Citadel received significant damage during the lengthy Battle of Aleppo. Since early 2017, with repairs to damaged parts underway, Aleppo Citadel has been open to the public and boasts spectacular views over the bustling ancient city of Aleppo.

Getting to Aleppo Citadel

You should check with your government’s travel advice before heading to Syria. Nonetheless, Aleppo is only a 15 minute drive from Aleppo’s International Airport.

Ancient Bosra history

The ancient city itself dates back far into antiquity, with references to the settlement stretching back as far as the 14th century BC. However, it was under the Nabataeans that the city rose to prominence, becoming an important centre of the kingdom. Conquered by Rome in 106 AD, Bosra soon became the capital of the Roman province of Arabia and at its peak held over 80,000 inhabitants.

In the Byzantine era the city was an important military and trading border town. Bosra changed hands between the Byzantine and Persian empires before being captured during the early Islamic expansion in 634 AD.

Under Muslim rule the city continued to thrive for several centuries and was an important stopping point for both traders and pilgrims on the route to Mecca. In the latter middle ages the political prominence of Bosra waned and the city slowly dwindled in size.

Ancient Bosra today

Today, a small city still remains alongside a huge array of fascinating archaeological sites. Chief among the ruins at Bosra is the 2nd century AD Roman theatre. Built under the Roman emperor Trajan, it would have originally held up to 15,000 people.

During the early Islamic period the theatre was converted into a citadel which helped to ensure its survival and explains the excellent state of preservation nowadays. The site also boasts the ruins of an ancient Roman circus, the outline of which can still be seen.

Also found at the site of Ancient Bosra are the remains of a Roman bath complex, Nabatean and Roman monuments, early Christian churches including the 6th-century cathedral of Bosra and important sites from the early Islamic period including the Al-Omari Mosque, said to be the 3rd oldest surviving mosque in the world.

Getting to Ancient Bosra

Situated along the 109 motorway in Syria, Ancient Bosra is a 2 and a half hour drive from Amman in Jordan via the Damascus Highway or Damascus itself via the M5, 2 hours away.

Today, Apamea is an incredible site. Most of the remains are from the Roman period, yet there are also fascinating finds from the city’s time under the Seleucids including ruins of its defences, much of which have been restored.

Apamea history

After the region’s conquest by Alexander the Great, Apamea was founded as a Macedonian military camp around 320 BC. From 300 BC, then called Pella, the city was fortified and renamed ‘Apamea’ for Seleucus’ wife, Apama. Surrounded by lakes and marshes, Apamea was a strategic location at a crossroads of Eastern commerce, later expanded by Seleucus to home 500 elephants and over 30,000 horses belonging to the military.

In 64 BC, Pompey marched south from his winter base at Antioch and razed the fortress at Apamea when the city was annexed by the Roman Republic. Apamea held out against Julius Caesar for 3 years until Cassius arrived in 46 BC, but was briefly captured by Pompey and the Parthians in 40 BC.

Between 218 and 234 AD, the legion Parthica was stationed at Apamea after abandoning the usurper Macrinus for the emperor. However, Apamea was later destroyed by the Sasanian King of Iran, Chosroes I, in the 6th century battles between the Sasanians and the Byzantines.

Following the Muslim conquest of Syria only 20 years later, Apamea was partially rebuilt and known in Arabic as ‘Afamiya’. The settlement gained important under the rule of the Hamdanid dynasty and ruled by Khalaf ibn Mula’ib until he was murdered by Assassins. The city was destroyed once again by an earthquake in 1152 and because of the Syrian civil war, Apamea has been further damaged and looted by treasure hunters.

Apamea today

Today, many remains of the ancient acropolis stand, including the ruins of several highly ornamental temples. Apamea is still enclosed in the ancient castle walls called Kalat el-Mudik, although many of the excavated objects from the site are found outside of Syria in the Brussels Cinquantenaire Museum. One such treasure is the Great Hunting Mosaic from the Governor’s residence, dating back to 414 AD.

A highlight of the ruins is undoubtedly the Great Colonnade, once situated along the main avenue of Apamea and running for 2 kilometres – the largest in the Roman world. The colunnade was rebuilt after the 115 AD earthquake and ran between the city’s north and south gates, passing through the baths, agora, atrium and basilica.

Visitors should also not leave without seeing the Hellenistic style Roman theatre that overlooks the Orontes River valley, once able to seat 20,000 eager spectators and rebuilt under Trajan and Hadrian following the 115 earthquake.

Be aware the site is several miles wide, so take comfortable shoes.

Getting to Apamea

The easiest way of getting to Apamea is via hired driver from the nearby city Hama, which takes just over an hour.

The site has been used as a fortification for many centuries, and is thought to have first been occupied by the Phoenicians and later by Alexander the Great. The current site was built by the Byzantines and became a Crusader stronghold until its capture by Saladin in 1188.

The Citadel of Salah Ed-Din was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2006.

History of Citadel of Salah Ed-Din

The medieval citadel is built of limestone, and contains features such as high protective towers, a moat, and the remains of a bridge.

The citadel is located around 30km east of Latakia, near the Syrian coast, and on the way to Aleppo. It is strategically located amongst thick forest in the high mountains on a ridge between two deep ravines. It was built to guard the route between Latikia and the city of Antioch.

The site has been fortified since at least the mid 10th century, and its first known occupant was a dependent of the Aleppo-based Hamdanid emir, Sayf al-Dawla. It was captured by Byzantine emperor John I Tzimiskes captured Sahyun in 975, who fortified it in around 1000 with 3 walls of 5 metres in thickness.

It remained in Byzantine control until around 1108, at which point it was captured by Crusaders. In 1188, in what was one of his most successful military campaigns, the Ayyubid sultan Saladin and his son laid siege to and captured the castle. Later administrations developed a palace, mosque, baths, cistern, and a madrasa in the hear of the site.

It was finally recaptured after the Mamluks besieged it in 1287, before being abandoned after at least the late 14th century.

It was made a UNESCO world heritage site in 2006. Though concerns were raised about its safety due to the Syrian uprising of 2011 and the civil war, it survived without any significant damage.

Citadel of Salah Ed-Din Today

In early 20th century, T. E. Lawrence visited the castle, and described it as ‘the most sensational castle building I have ever seen’. The site is close to Al-Haffah, a town in northwestern Syria. Today, visitors who are willing to make the walk or the steep drive up the ridge can enjoy exploring the historic site.

Getting to Citadel of Salah Ed-Din

From the nearby town of Al-Haffah, the citadel is a 9 minute drive via unnamed roads up to the top of the ridge. It is also a 47 minute drive through thick forest.

History of Dura Europos

It was one of the successor states that emerged after the death of Alexander the Great, the Seleucid Greeks, who founded Dura Europos in 300BC, locating it at the mid-point between their two capitals and overlooking the Euphrates River.

Over the centuries, Dura Europos developed from a caravan settlement into more of a commercial hub. In addition, time would also see this city taken over by a succession of peoples, first the Arsacid Parthians, then the Romans in around 160AD. Dura Europos was finally destroyed in 256AD, attacked by the Sasanid Persian Empire. Remarkably, during excavations, remains of Roman soldiers were found inside the underground siege tunnels which had been dug by Persian forces intent on undermining the walls.

Part of what made the archaeological discoveries at Dura Europos so impressive was not just their good state of preservation, but their intricate and ornate decorations including frescos and wall paintings. In fact, the site was so well conserved, some have taken to calling it the Syrian Desert’s answer to Pompeii. The majority of these fascinating finds are now on show in museums including the Louvre and the National Museum of Damascus.

Dura Europos Today

Today, the impressive remains of Dura Europos illustrate its cultural and historical diversity. In addition to Greco-Roman ruins including temples, the site is home to the ruins of one of the world’s oldest known synagogues and what has been described as the earliest known church.

Visitors can explore the towering defensive walls and fortifications as well as evidence of the siege works which brought down the city. There are also great views to be had from the high cliffs above the Euphrates.

Due to the current political situation in Syria, tourists are not recommended to visit. However, there are a number of experienced tour companies, such as Nawafir Travel & Tours, which can take you round the site with an expert at the helm.

Getting to Dura Europos

From the centre of Damascus, the site is a 7 hour 15 minute drive via the M20.

Perhaps the best preserved example of a Crusader fortress in existence today, Krak des Chevaliers is an awe-inspiring example of medieval military architecture and resultantly was designated a World Heritage site in 2006.

Krak des Chevaliers history

Located on a 650 metre-high natural citadel between Tartus and Tripoli, the castle was originally constructed by the Emir of Aleppo in 1031 on the site of an earlier fort. However, after the Emir was defeated, the stronghold was given by Raymond II of Tripoli to the Jerusalem-based Order of the Knights Hospitaller in 1144.

The Hospitallers could properly man the fortress, providing useful cover to the eastern frontier and maintaining control of the area including the Muslim sect, the Assassins, who paid them annual tribute. At its peak, the castle held 2,000 people including infantry to mercenaries, with only 60 brother knights.

Built to withstand a siege for up to 5 years, Krak des Chevaliers was considered virtually impregnable after the Hospitallers extended the castle and gave it a new outer defensive wall. The main enclosure was surrounded by a man-made moat which was carved out of solid rock in a dramatic example of Crusade-era engineering.

Captured by the Mameluke Sultan Baibars in 1271, Krak des Chevaliers was used as a base for Mameluke expansion towards the end of the 13th century. During the Ottoman period between the 16th and 20th centuries, the Krak des Chevaliers was commanded by a warden and acted as the centre of a tax district.

Krak des Chevaliers today

Today, a village clled al-Husn surrounds the well-preserved castle that is open to visitors. Situated close to the border with Lebanon, Krak des Chevaliers provides a uniquely full picture of Crusader life for to those interested in the Crusades. Without charge, wander the immense castle as the wind whips about you, high on the hill.

Be aware, you should check your government’s travel advice before travelling to Syria since the recent civil war. Evidence of the recent conflict is now part of the castle’s remains: bullet holes and Russian graffiti from Chechen rebels scarring the medieval fortress.

Getting to Krak des Chevaliers

Open Sunday through to Friday, you can reach Krak des Chevaliers from Homs in 45 minutes by car via the M1, exiting towards Wadi International University. From Tripoli in Lebanon, it is a 1 hour and 40 minute drive via the border at Aabboudiye and M1.