In Rise of Augustus, historians including Tristan Hughes, Dr Hannah Cornwell, Adrian Goldsworthy, and Dr Simon Elliot explore how a frail and inexperienced teenager transformed himself into the most powerful man in the Roman world. Caesar may have destabilised the Republic, but Augustus rebuilt its ruins into an empire that endured for centuries. 

The documentary examines how Octavian survived an era of violence and political collapse through ruthless pragmatism, calculated alliances, and a remarkable understanding of public image. More than a military leader, Augustus was a political architect who understood that perception could be as powerful as armies.

Born into a Republic in decline

Octavian was born in 63 BC during the final years of the Roman Republic. By then, Rome was already dominated by corruption, rivalry, and civil unrest. Powerful generals controlled private armies, while senators fought for influence and wealth.

Growing up fatherless, Octavian learned early that noble birth alone meant little. Calculated ambition and careful political positioning mattered far more. Aged 12, he delivered a public funeral speech for his grandmother Julia, the sister of Julius Caesar. The speech openly connected him to Caesar, already one of Rome’s most influential and controversial figures.

Caesar soon recognised potential in the young aristocrat and gradually drew him into his circle. But closeness to Caesar also meant danger.

Caesar’s war and the rise of an heir

When Julius Caesar crossed the Rubicon in 49 BC, he defied the Senate and triggered a civil war that divided Rome. Caesar’s enemies, led by Pompey the Great, fought to preserve the Republic, while Caesar pursued greater authority. The teenage Octavian found himself in a position of immediate, terrifying vulnerability. 

The multi-continental civil war completely reshaped the Mediterranean, and eventually reached Egypt. The sudden, shocking execution of Pompey by local rulers hoping to win Caesar’s favour and the entrance of Cleopatra VII and her alliance with Caesar created a volatile political environment, especially after the birth of Caesarion, Cleopatra’s son. For Octavian, the existence of another possible heir threatened his future before it had properly begun.

Everything changed in 44 BC with Caesar’s assassination. A group of senators believed killing him would restore the Republic, but instead they plunged Rome into chaos.

Dr Hannah Cornwell, Associate Professor in Roman History

Image Credit: History Hit

At just 18 years old, Octavian received astonishing news while studying across the Adriatic: Caesar had named him his adopted son and principal heir. Against his family’s advice, he returned to Rome to claim the inheritance and took the name Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus.

Rome’s political elite underestimated him. The orator Cicero believed Octavian could be used against Mark Antony and later discarded. Instead, the teenager rapidly built support among Caesar’s veterans, raised a private army, and forced his election as consul at only 19.

Soon afterward, Octavian allied himself with Mark Antony and Marcus Lepidus to form the Second Triumvirate, a legally recognised dictatorship that stood above the Senate. To fund their war against Caesar’s assassins, they introduced proscriptions – official death lists that led to mass executions and confiscated property.

The violence shocked Rome. Even Cicero, once convinced he could control Octavian, became one of the victims.

Dr Simon Elliot, historian and author

Image Credit: History Hit

Antony, Cleopatra, and the Battle for Rome

After defeating Brutus and Cassius at the Battle of Philippi, the triumvirs divided the Roman world. Antony took the wealthy eastern provinces, while Octavian controlled Italy and the West.

The alliance quickly deteriorated. Antony became increasingly tied to Cleopatra and Egypt, while Octavian remained in Rome building support. Using propaganda with extraordinary skill, Octavian portrayed Antony as a Roman leader corrupted by a foreign queen.

One of his boldest political moves came when he illegally seized Antony’s private will and read it publicly, fuelling outrage among Romans. Octavian then framed the coming conflict not as another civil war, but as a patriotic struggle against Cleopatra – a strategy that united Rome behind him.

The decisive confrontation came at the naval Battle of Actium in 31 BC. Octavian’s forces defeated Antony and Cleopatra, who later took their own lives in Alexandria. With their deaths, Octavian became the sole ruler of the Roman world.

Adrian Goldsworthy, historian and author

Image Credit: History Hit

The creation of Augustus

Although Octavian now held complete power, he had witnessed his great-uncle murdered for acting like a king, and refused to repeat the mistake.

Instead of openly becoming a monarch, he carefully preserved the illusion that the Republic still existed. He adopted the modest title Princeps, meaning “first citizen,” while quietly controlling the army, government, and finances. He also accepted the honorific name Augustus.

Under Augustus, Rome entered a long period of peace and stability after decades of civil war. Many citizens willingly accepted the loss of political freedom in exchange for order and prosperity under the illusion of a free republic.

The empire Augustus created lasted for centuries and reshaped the western world. His political system became the model for imperial rule long after Rome itself declined.

Rise of Augustus is more than the story of a Roman emperor. It is the story of how modern autocracy was born. Augustus succeeded not simply because he defeated his enemies, but because he mastered the art of ruling without appearing to rule.

Through intelligence, patience, and relentless calculation, the overlooked teenager who inherited Caesar’s name transformed himself into the architect of one of history’s greatest empires.

Watch Rise of Augustus on History Hit to uncover the definitive story of the man who rewrote the rules of power to form the blueprint of the modern empire

But in 100 BC, a child was born into an aristocratic yet faded lineage – a man who would dismantle this 400-year-old system and  build something new.

In the gripping documentary Rise of Caesar, renowned historians Adrian Goldsworthy, Dr. Simon Elliott, and Dr. Hannah Cornwell, alongside History Hit’s Tristan Hughes, peel back the layers of the man, the myth, and the massive political ego that transformed the Western world forever. Together, they trace Gaius Julius Caesar’s journey from a fugitive teenager to a ‘warlord’ who gambled everything on a single river crossing.

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The crucible of ambition

Born into the Gens Julia – an ancient aristocratic family claiming descent from the goddess Venus – Caesar’s lineage was prestigious, yet his family lacked the wealth and political clout of Rome’s top-tier elite.

Caesar’s hunger for power was forged in crisis. When he was just a teenager, his father died suddenly, thrusting him into the role of family patriarch. This premature responsibility forced a rapid maturity. As Tristan Hughes explains, the political landscape was already fracturing between the conservative Sulla and Caesar’s radical uncle, Marius.

The ‘Marian reforms’ had recently transformed the Roman army from a citizen militia into a professional force loyal to their generals rather than the state. “This suddenly gives you the power of a warlord,” notes Dr. Simon Elliott. When Sulla emerged victorious in a bloody civil war, Caesar found himself on a hit list. Only through his family’s influence was he pardoned – though Sulla famously warned that “in this Caesar, there are many Mariuses.”

The Cursus Honorum: climbing the ladder

To reach the top, Caesar had to navigate the Cursus Honorum (the “Ladder of Offices”). This was a rigid hierarchy of financial, judicial, and administrative roles that every ambitious Roman aristocrat was required to climb.

Caesar’s ascent was marked by a relentless pursuit of renown. After winning the Civic Crown – the Roman equivalent of the Victoria Cross – for saving a comrade’s life in battle, he returned to Rome to master the art of law and oratory. He famously took on high-profile legal cases just to get noticed, even if it meant making enemies of the senior nobility.

Caesar with Civic Crown

Image Credit: History Hit

His journey was never dull; while traveling to Rhodes to study, he was captured by pirates. In a display of the “immense self-confidence” Adrian Goldsworthy highlights, Caesar laughed at their low ransom demand, insisted they double it, and joked that he would return to crucify them – a promise he grimly kept.

Bread, circuses, and massive debt

By the 60s BC, Caesar understood that in Rome, politics was a rich man’s game. To win the hearts of the masses, he spent lavishly. As an Aedile in 65 BC, he staged games featuring 320 pairs of gladiators. “Being active in Roman politics is not cheap,” says Dr. Hannah Cornwell.

To fund this “bread and circuses” strategy, Caesar turned to Crassus, the wealthiest man in Rome. This calculated risk helped secure his election as Pontifex Maximus in 63 BC – the high priesthood of Rome. This move provided him with the sacrosanctity and influence needed to begin his true power play.

The documentary then details Caesar’s rivalry with Cato and his time serving as Praetor, before explaining how Caesar stayed ahead of his creditors by securing governorships abroad, first in Spain, and later in Gaul, where the spoils of war finally began to settle his astronomical debts.

The First Triumvirate

By 60 BC, Caesar realised that the Senate’s shared power was a wall he couldn’t climb alone. He orchestrated the First Triumvirate, a secret and staggering political alliance with Pompey the Great, Rome’s most celebrated general, and Crassus, its wealthiest citizen.

This was the moment the Republic truly began to wobble – the alliance effectively bypassed the Senate, allowing Caesar to secure the consulship and, subsequently, the governorship of Gaul.

Assignment of Roman provinces to Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus.

Gaul and the British expeditions

To rule Rome, Caesar knew he needed two things: gold and glory. The documentary takes us into the Gallic Wars, where Caesar’s genius for logistics and psychological warfare was on full display. He didn’t just conquer territories; he systematically erased opposition.

In 55 and 54 BC, Caesar turned his gaze toward the mysterious island of Britain. While these expeditions were militarily inconclusive, they were propaganda masterpieces. By crossing the “Ocean” at the edge of the known world, Caesar framed himself as a pioneer-hero, outshining even Pompey’s eastern victories.

The point of no return: the Rubicon

By 50 BC, Caesar had become too powerful for the Roman establishment to ignore. His former ally, Pompey, had aligned with the conservative faction led by Cato the Younger. The Senate issued an ultimatum: disband your army or be declared an enemy of the state (hostis). Caesar knew that returning to Rome without his legions meant certain prosecution and political ruin.

On 10 January 49 BC, Caesar arrived at the Rubicon, a small, unremarkable river in Northern Italy marking his provincial boundary. He’d been told to cross it with an army would be an act of high treason. With the famous words, “Alea iacta est” (The die is cast), he crossed. The Republic was dead; the Civil War had begun.

Caesar crossing the Rubicon, 49 BC

Image Credit: Lanmas / Alamy Stock Photo

Dictatorship and the Ides of March

The aftermath saw Caesar sweep through Italy, defeating Pompey at Pharsalus. His victory was the death knell for Republican governance. Eventually declared Dictator Perpetuo (Dictator for Life), he began a whirlwind of reforms, including the creation of the Julian Calendar and an expansion of the Senate to include his loyal supporters. 

However, his absolute power became his death warrant. To the old guard, Caesar wasn’t a reformer; he was a tyrant. On the Ides of March – 15 March 44 BC – the very principles the Republic was built upon – shared power and the rejection of kingship – struck back. Led by Brutus and Cassius, a group of senators assassinated Caesar in the Theatre of Pompey. While they hoped to restore the Republic, they only succeeded in accelerating its collapse, paving the way for his heir, Augustus, to become the first Emperor.

Step into the world of ancient Rome and learn more about what led to the gamble that ended an era in Rise of Caesar.

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After years of civil war and instability, History Hit has gained unique access as the first documentary team in 15 years to film in the rarely seen extraordinary ancient sites within Cyrenaica, centred around one of the greatest cities of the ancient world, Cyrene – a vibrant and important part of the Greek and Roman world. 

This is a fascinating journey into a spectacular region where documentaries rarely go. From the majestic monumental Greek cities to active archaeology being revealed right before our eyes on the coast, this film celebrates the beauty, significance, and untold history of one of the ancient Mediterranean’s most powerful regions. Prepare for a film like no other, promising unprecedented access and a view of ancient history you’ve never seen.

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The coastal city emerging from the waves

Most modern understanding of Libya is framed by the era of Colonel Gaddafi and the subsequent civil war. However, Dan’s journey travels back 2,000 years and beyond to Cyrenaica, a fertile strip of land in northeastern Libya that was once the breadbasket and powerhouse of the ancient Mediterranean. As Dan explains, “Very few news crews, let alone history documentary-makers get to come here.” 

Dan’s journey begins at the bay of Al Haniyah on the Mediterranean coast, where a fascinating archaeology project is rediscovering a long-lost coastal city, revealing its secrets thanks to natural coastal erosion. Working with teams from the University of Ulster and the University of Benghazi, Dan witnesses fascinating, active archaeology in progress that is disclosing the people who lived here two millennia ago. 

Dan Snow sees how objects embedded in the cliffs are being exposed due to coastal erosion.

Image Credit: History Hit

“Ancient objects are literally falling out of the cliffs,” Dan notes, as the intense winter storms of North Africa claw away at the cliff face, exposing layers of history spanning over 1,000 years. The erosion is a race against time, but offers a unique, exposed cross-section of an ancient port. Dan and the lead archaeologist, Dr. Julia Nikolaus, even discover human bones that have fallen out of a burial, a visceral reminder that the waves of the Mediterranean are exposing all aspects of daily life and death at Al Haniyah.

Along with hundreds of pottery shards, monumental buildings – including the remains of a temple and a Roman villa – are emerging, along with remaining patches of mosaic floors. This seemingly obscure town, which left little impression in the history books, is transforming our understanding of trade, proving it was a crucial hub for exporting goods like wine and Cyrenaican oil – once described as the oil of the ancient world.

Dan Snow with lead archaeologist Dr Julia Nikolaus – they are pointing at a blocked-up doorway or window emerging from the cliffs

Image Credit: History Hit

Dan even joins a team conducting an underwater survey that is uncovering columns and signs of an ancient harbour beneath the waves, proving that a “new chapter in the story of Cyrenaica is being recorded right here.”

We can imagine merchant ships anchored offshore; crews calling out as heavy amphorae were loaded; traders bargaining in the shade of warehouses; families strolling along the harbour-front. For centuries, this place supported busy routines of work, travel, and exchange.

The wonder of Cyrene: A claim to power

Heading inland, Dan travels up into the fertile mountains, site of the magnificent city of Cyrene, which was a wonder of the ancient Graeco-Roman world and a profound statement of Greek identity. It is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site. 

Dan’s excitement of exploring here is palpable. “I’ve dreamed of coming here all my life” says Dan. “We’ve been told that we’re (History Hit) are the first television crew to come and film here since the fall of Gaddafi. And as a result we have the whole place to ourselves – it feels almost like  we’re discovering it for the first time”. 

The Gymnasium at Cyrene, Libya, with the small theatre visible in the background.

Image Credit: History Hit

Cyrene’s grand architecture – including the colossal Greek gymnasium, a centre of learning and physical fitness lined with Doric columns – was designed to proclaim that visitors were entering the Greek world. Its origins, revealed in ancient writings by Herodotus, were humble: struggling Greek colonists were shown the fertile land by indigenous Libyans. Dan also explores a splendid house complete with an outdoor Hall of the Muses, where rich guests would enjoy music and poetry beneath a warm North African sky.  

The city’s immense wealth stemmed from one unique cash crop: Silphium. This legendary plant, which no longer exists, was literally worth its weight in gold due to its supposed healing properties. Dan visits the marketplace where this invaluable commodity was traded, a trade so vital it was thought to be protected by the goddess of agriculture, Demeter. Silphium was transported from Cyrene down to the coast, and then exported to the wealthy centres of the ancient Mediterranean, from Alexandria to Athens and Rome. 

Cyrene also exported knowledge. It was the home of the philosopher Aristippus, who founded the hedonistic school of thought focused on pleasure, and his daughter Arete, believed to be the first female philosopher in history.

The Sanctuary of Apollo in Cyrene, Libya

Image Credit: History Hit

In a unique fusion of storytelling and innovation, History Hit’s film collaborates with Ubisoft to recreate lost parts of the ancient city of Cyrene using stunning imagery from Assassin’s Creed Origins. This allows us to picture what it would have been like to walk these very streets and visit Cyrene’s magnificent theatre, temples and sacred places (including the Temple of Apollo and the spring of Apollo) over 2,000 years ago.

From Greek gymnasium to Roman arena

Dan charts Cyrene’s evolving identity after the Romans took over in 96 BC due to dynastic squabbles in Ptolemaic Egypt, when they transformed the city to better express their Roman-ness. The massive Greek theatre was converted into a Roman amphitheatre, trading the stage for the arena and gladiatorial shows. People from here continued to feature in accounts of the Roman world, men like Simon of Cyrene who the New Testament says helped to carry Jesus’ cross to his crucifixion. 

Dan concludes his journey at the harbour city of Apollonia, which ultimately would overshadow Cyrene. Here, the final transition of the ancient world is visible: the ruins of a Christian basilica, built largely from the recycled plinths and inscriptions of dismantled Roman temples. This basilica reflects the shift to the Byzantine era, proving that the legacy of those ancient civilizations can be explored just as profoundly in Northern Africa as in Athens or Rome.

Components of the ancient temple in Apollonia were rearranged by the Byzantines to create a space for Christian worship.

Image Credit: History Hit

A mainstay of the ancient world

As Dan concludes, the sites in Libya are on the same monumental scale as the Parthenon in Athens. They make a powerful claim: the Cyrenians were not some peripheral colonial outpost; they were one of the mainstays of the ancient world. As Dan reflects,

It’s easy to forget that the Mediterranean Sea was the centre of the Ancient world. You don’t need to go to Athens or Rome… you can explore them all in Northern Africa. It has been an eye-opening experience.”

History Hit’s Head of Programming, Bill Locke, reflects on the team’s experience in Libya:

“Filming in Libya was an extraordinary experience – seeing ancient Greek pottery emerging from the cliffs in a previously untouched site by the Mediterranean, and walking through the wonders of Cyrene, the first documentary crew to film there since the fall of Gaddafi.”

We’ll be speaking to Bill in more depth soon where we’ll delve deeper to learn more about the team’s fascinating and exclusive experiences filming in a spectacular region where documentaries rarely go.

Join Dan Snow for an unprecedented look at the treasures of North Africa in Ancient Adventures: Libya.

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In History Hit’s new documentary, Scotland’s Roman Hoard: The Traprain Treasure, Tristan Hughes is granted exclusive access to the National Museum of Scotland to examine these incredible artefacts up close. Guided by leading expert Dr Fraser Hunter, Principal Curator of The National Museum of Scotland, Tristan delves into the hoard’s mysterious origins, uncovering what this treasure reveals about trade and power games at the far edges of the Roman Empire, and the true birth of medieval Scotland.

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The treasure of the ‘Barbarians’

The discovery of the Traprain Treasure is unique because it was found far outside the formal boundaries of the Roman Empire, and buried at a time when Roman Britain had receded some considerable distance to the south and was collapsing (around 450 AD). The Romans had never managed to hold onto land beyond Hadrian’s Wall long-term; further north above modern-day Edinburgh tribal groups would ultimately unite and become the Picts, who fiercely resisted Roman control.

Caught up between these powers were the Votadini, a formidable people who lived in the buffer state beyond Hadrian’s Wall. Traprain Law, east of modern-day Edinburgh, rises out of the East Lothian plain and was a major power centre for them. While the Romans called them ‘Barbarians,’ the Votadini used their strategic position to their advantage, maintaining a rewarding alliance with Rome without succumbing to its rule.

Dr Fraser Hunter describes the hoard as “one of the most remarkable finds of late-Roman silver from anywhere in the empire or beyond,” emphasising that this is a story about the powerful communities beyond the frontier, not the Romans within it.

Tristan Hughes (left) with Dr Fraser Hunter (right), Principal Curator at The National Museum of Scotland. In front of them lies some of the objects from the Traprain Treasure.

The discovery

Excavations of the site had begun in 1914, led by Alexander Curle, the former director of the Royal Scottish Museum in Edinburgh. On 12 May 1919, workmen were clearing one of the levels with a pick-axe when foreman George Pringle discovered a silver vessel. 

The treasure did not emerge pristine. It was largely found as “hack silver” – flattened, broken, and fragmented pieces. Early restorers pieced them back together, but the fragments hold a critical secret. The silver is incredibly pure (93-95%), giving it immense value, not just as art, but as a raw material. As Tristan and Fraser reveal, the meticulous way the silver was chopped into precise, weight-standardised fragments suggests this wasn’t the haphazard destruction of “barbarians,” but a careful act performed perhaps within the Roman world during a time of economic crisis.

A world in transition: Paganism and Christianity

The objects themselves speak to a world in transition, showcasing the elite culture and rising anxieties of the late Roman Empire. In the documentary, Tristan examines a beautifully preserved bowl, once a high-status washbasin for elite women, adorned with magnificent pagan imagery including a sea nereid nymph riding a sea panther. Other fragments depict the mythological hero Hercules, reflecting the classical culture of elite Roman dining.

Yet, the hoard also contains the earliest Christian item found in Scotland: a gilded silver vessel featuring detailed scenes from both the Old and New Testaments. This impressive piece of early Christian iconography, complete with Adam and Eve, and the Virgin Mary receiving the Three Wise Men, powerfully illustrates how a new religion was taking hold. This mix of pagan and Christian items in a single hoard reflects the contested, turbulent world of late antiquity.

Depiction of the Virgin Mary receiving the Three Wise Men on silver vessel from the Traprain Treasure.

Image Credit: History Hit / National Museum of Scotland

Mercenaries, money, and power games

How did so much Roman silver – over 250 objects weighing 23kg – end up buried on a Scottish hill?

The treasures came north over a long period, likely spanning a century or more, linking Traprain to the military and political turmoil of the collapsing Empire. Fraser explains that the Votadini were Rome’s eyes and ears in the North, and the silver often came north as mercenary pay or diplomatic gifts. As he puts it, “a chunk of this material is likely to be effectively their pay packets.”

In the documentary, Tristan examines silver coins from the hoard that have been deliberately clipped around the edges – according to Fraser this was a particularly British habit after the official flow of coinage ceased around 410 AD. This act of clipping silver to pay people by weight offers a clear indication of the hoard’s dating (featuring Emperors Valens and Theodosius, and Honorius) and its use in a post-Roman economy.

Far from being ‘chopped up by Barbarians’, the precision cuts and adhering to Roman weight standards suggest the silver fragments were meticulously prepared, possibly even within the Roman world during a time of economic crisis, where the material’s raw value for transport or trade was prioritised over its artistic form.

Pieces of cut silver from the Traprain Treasure

Image Credit: History Hit / National Museum of Scotland

Brought in from the Roman world as diplomatic gifts, subsidies, and mercenary payments, silver quickly became a powerful symbol of status and influence in local society. Had it not been frozen in time by burial, it would have been recycled and refashioned into magnificent brooches, chains, and rings – new status items essential for asserting influence in local society. Fraser shows Tristan a large silver military buckle decorated with the Christian Alpha and Omega symbols, indicating that some of these “swords for hire” were Christians themselves.

The Traprain Treasure proves that while the Romans failed to conquer this part of Britain, they left a profound and lasting impact. The raw material of Rome’s empire – frozen in time on a Scottish hill – became the foundation for the prestigious society and early medieval culture that would eventually lead to the birth of Scotland.

Join Tristan Hughes and Dr Fraser Hunter to uncover the true significance of the Traprain Treasure and witness the birth of a nation in Scotland’s Roman Hoard: The Traprain Treasure.

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In a new documentary, Enemies of Rome: In Search of the Picts, Tristan Hughes travels across Scotland to go beyond the myths and uncover the truth. He meets the experts, explores the latest discoveries, and investigates how these enigmatic people lived, thrived, and ultimately vanished.

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Beyond the Wall

The Roman Empire’s northern frontier was marked by Hadrian’s Wall, a towering fortification that the Romans believed was the very edge of civilisation. Beyond it, in the wild and untamed lands of what is now Scotland, lived the Picts – a name likely derived from the Latin Picti, or “painted people.”

While Roman sources dismissed them as “barbarians,” they were a people who resisted conquest, even pushing back against Rome’s most ambitious attempts to expand north. The Romans built the Antonine Wall 100 miles north of Hadrian’s Wall, but it was ultimately a failure. By the 3rd century, the Picts emerged free of Roman control, their formidable resistance a testament to their strength and organisation.

But with no written records of their own, we’ve long had a one-sided view of them. So who were they? The programme takes us to the heartland of Pictish territory, modern-day Aberdeenshire, to a newly excavated hill fort called Tap O’Noth. What archaeologists have found there is a “real revolution” in our understanding of Pictish society. The site was once a massive settlement with hundreds of house platforms, proving that these people were far more organised and lived on a scale previously thought impossible for the period.

Survival and creativity

With so few surviving written records, archaeology is our only real window into the Picts’ world. The discoveries reveal people who were not just surviving in a rugged landscape, but were also thriving. We see tools for agriculture, evidence of craftsmanship, and even objects that hint at a life of leisure, like gaming pieces influenced by the Roman Empire.

The Picts were masters of their environment, creating essential tools like the coracle – a small, woven willow-framed boat covered in oxhide – that allowed them to navigate their unforgiving world. But they also brought colour into their lives.

Tristan Hughes (left) is given a crash-course in Pictish daily life with Historical Leatherwork Specialist, Hamish Lamley (right), who makes Tristan dress the part, and teaches him how to build a coracle (‘currach’) – a small boat, typical of what was being used throughout this period.

Image Credit: History Hit

Contrary to the common myth of blue-painted warriors, new research suggests a different story. The name Picti may refer to body paint made from red hematite iron ore, a pigment found on Scottish beaches. 

As Tristan learns from Caroline Nicolay, an Experiential Archaeologist, the Roman historian Caesar’s texts were likely mistranslated, and the “blue” we associate with the Picts may have been a reference to the translucent colour of glass rather than the dye woad. This sheds a new light on how we should envision these formidable people charging into battle.

These discoveries are a powerful reminder that the real story of the Picts is far more complex than the Roman portrayal of them as savage warriors. Their daily lives weren’t just about fighting off Roman invasions; they had time for creativity, artistry, and a vibrant cultural life.

Tristan Hughes talks to Caroline Nicolay, an Experiential Archaeologist, about the vibrant pigments the Picts may have used, such as hematite, found on many Scottish beaches.

Image Credit: History Hit

Silver, symbols, and a shifting identity

The Picts also left behind some of the finest silver objects from anywhere in the early medieval world. Tristan heads to the National Museum of Scotland to meet Dr Martin Goldberg, Principal Curator, where he’s given special access to examine the Norrie’s Law hoard up-close, a massive collection of Late Roman and Pictish silver from the 6th century discovered in 1819 in Fife.

These treasures reveal a fascinating truth: the Picts didn’t just resist Rome; they traded with them, acquiring and repurposing precious Roman silver into distinctly their own works of art. These artefacts – including massive silver chains that were likely worn by powerful women or adolescents – were not just symbols of wealth, but a form of “proto-currency” and communication that showed what truly mattered to them.

Tristan Hughes at the National Museum of Scotland viewing items from the Norrie’s Law hoard, a massive 6th-century Pictish silver hoard discovered in 1819 in Fife, Scotland.

Image Credit: National Museum of Scotland / History Hit

Perhaps the Picts’ most enduring legacy is their enigmatic carved stones. Found across Scotland, these monuments are covered in striking, mysterious symbols that have puzzled historians for centuries. One particular hotspot is the village of Aberlemno in Angus, where Tristan views several carved Pictish stones and discusses their meaning with Historian and Heritage Stone-carver David McGovern.

While their exact meaning remains unknown, David suggests the symbols were likely so ingrained in Pictish culture that their meaning was widely understood. The fact that the symbols endured for so long and are found across a large territory indicates they were a powerful form of communication. This, combined with their frequent appearance in pairs, leads him to believe the carvings are “something to do with tribes, families, dynasties… alliances”, serving as a testament to the Picts’ sophisticated belief system and unique identity.

One of the Aberlemno Pictish Stones in Scotland

Image Credit: Fulcanelli / Shutterstock.com

The ultimate mystery, however, is what happened to them? As Tristan uncovers, Pictish identity didn’t disappear, but evolved. The arrival of Christianity saw their ancient traditions blend with a new faith, creating something entirely their own. But by the 10th century, as new powers rose, the Picts vanished from the historical record, being gradually absorbed into the emerging kingdom of Alba, the foundation of modern Scotland.

The great enigma of the Picts has ensured that the Roman, damning portrayal of them as barbaric has stuck for centuries. But now, thanks to archaeology, that myth is falling away, revealing a people who were fiercely independent, highly skilled, and profoundly human.

Join Tristan Hughes on a journey to find the real people behind the myths in Enemies of Rome: In Search of the Picts.

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Over six captivating films, releasing throughout 2025, History Hit is going behind the scenes to discover some of the Ashmolean’s most precious and surprising objects, in depth and up close. From ancient Middle Eastern protective figurines to strange and exquisite 18th century Memento Mori reminding us of the inevitability of death; from Egyptian figures crafted before the first pharaohs to one of the greatest Anglo Saxon treasures of them all, the Alfred Jewel, this fascinating new series will cast remarkable light on the Ashmolean’s exceptionally rich and varied collection.

The films are presented by Dan Snow and Suzannah Lipscomb, with the expert guidance and insights of the museum’s world-renowned curators.

In this first film, The Ashmolean Up Close: Nero’s Golden House, Dan Snow invites us to imagine a dinner party with the Emperor Nero in his legendary ‘Domus Aurea’, his Golden House in Rome.

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A glimpse into Nero’s world

Dan’s journey begins with an extraordinary fresco from Nero’s palace. Discovered deep within the palace ruins near the Colosseum in 1688, this nearly 2,000 year old painting from a dining room offers a rare window into Nero’s aesthetic. It depicts Adonis being presented to the goddess Aphrodite, a scene hinting at the sensual atmosphere of Nero’s lavish banquets.

Yet, as Dan discovers, the latest conservation work in the Ashmolean studio is raising fascinating questions. As the fresco is prepared for display in the museum’s Roman galleries, conservator Alexandra Baldwin is meticulously cleaning away centuries of later repairs and over-paint using agar (a seaweed-derived material). Witness this delicate process as layers of history are peeled back, revealing the fresco’s original Roman splendour and raising questions about how much more of Nero’s original vision can be unveiled.

Research Keeper of Antiquities, Paul Roberts, guides Dan through the story of Nero’s opulent home, exploring how this fresco and other beautiful Roman dining artefacts from the Ashmolean’s collection offer clues to Nero’s often transgressive lifestyle.

Conservator Alexandra Baldwin from the Ashmolean team applying agar to clean away over-paint from a fresco from Nero’s Golden House, revealing its original Roman splendour

Image Credit: History Hit

Sensuality at the Roman table

Beyond the wall paintings, Paul guides Dan through exquisite Roman tableware, revealing how every detail, from hand-crafted silver cups adorned with myrtle leaves and berries to unique wine rituals, was designed to signal immense wealth and subtly encourage an atmosphere ripe for ‘loosening up’. The very air of these dinner parties would be charged with a deliberate, sensual allure. 

Power and perception

The programme also delves into Nero’s coinage, offering surprising insights into the dynamics of his power. You’ll discover how early coins tell a different story about his relationship with his formidable mother, Agrippina the Younger.

All these objects within the Ashmolean’s collection converge to paint a compelling portrait of Nero: an emperor whose grand excesses and governmental failings ultimately led to his downfall and the ruin of his magnificent Domus Aurea.

Watch The Ashmolean Up Close: Nero’s Golden House and find out more about the sensory world of this enigmatic emperor hidden within his opulent palace.

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Step into the arena with History Hit’s new documentary, Gladiators: History’s Greatest Fighters,  and join Dan Snow as he teams up with leading experts in Italy and England to uncover the surprising truths behind our enduring fascination and investigates the daily lives of history’s most iconic combatants.

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While Rome famously popularised the games, gladiator-style combat actually began much earlier, during Italy’s mysterious Etruscan period (800-400 BC). These brutal bouts, initially solemn funeral rites, quickly evolved into grand public spectacles.

Dan begins his quest at the amphitheatre in Capua, considered the birthplace of the Roman gladiatorial games, exploring how politicians harnessed these displays for power, transforming them into a tool for entertainment and public distraction that soon spread throughout the burgeoning Roman Empire.

The amphitheatre in Capua, considered the birthplace of the Roman gladiatorial games.

Life in the Ludus

Every major city in the Roman world eventually boasted an amphitheatre, but the Colosseum remains the ultimate symbol. Just outside its colossal walls lay the Ludus Magnus, Rome’s elite gladiator training school. Here, Dan speaks with gladiator historian Alexander Mariotti who reveals how this “ancient sports club” transformed raw recruits into the champions who electrified crowds.

You’ll discover that these fighters weren’t all slaves; many were free men drawn by the potential for immense wealth. A gladiator’s earning potential could be 17 times that of a Roman army recruit, offering a pathway out of poverty.

Mariotti explains how these valuable assets – a significant investment for their owners (the lanistas) – received exceptional care, receiving regular meals (often barley and beans), recovery baths, and dedicated medical attention, challenging the myth of gladiators as mere fodder. 

Duality and distraction

The world of gladiatorial combat was more diverse than often imagined, featuring over 20 gladiator types. Dan learns about the deliberate, contrasting pairings, such as the heavily armoured murmillo (“fish man”) with his short sword, against the agile thraex (Thracian) with his curved dagger, or the shielded secutor battling the nimble retiarius, armed with a net and trident. Mariotti explains how these “mismatched” duels were precisely orchestrated for maximum entertainment, emphasising themes of duality – man against nature, speed against power – designed to thrill the spectators.

But how often did these highly trained fighters enter the arena, and what did a typical day at the games entail? Gladiatorial appearances varied by period and emperor, but one constant emerged: during times of crosos, the games became the ultimate distraction, a powerful tool for emperors to pacify citizens and divert attention from political turmoil.

A full day at the amphitheatre was a meticulously orchestrated affair, moving from grand parades and spectacular beast hunts, to half-time entertainment featuring acrobats, dancers, and even public executions. The lavish displays, often accompanied by raffles offering free food, wine, and prizes, culminated in the highly anticipated gladiator matches – the dramatic climax of the show.

Chaser and Retiarius gladiators

A spreading empire

As the Roman Empire expanded, so did the popularity of gladiatorial games and the construction of purpose-built amphitheatres across its vast territories, from Italy to North Africa and even the fringes of Britain. Dan explores evidence from sites like Richborough Amphitheatre and objects like the Hawkedon helmet, revealing the far-reaching impact of these spectacles. 

However, the gladiatorial system wasn’t without its internal threats. The early training hub of Capua became the spark for a rebellion that nearly toppled Rome. In 73 BC, the legendary Spartacus, an agile Thracian gladiator, led a slave revolt that ignited the Third Servile War. Spartacus and his thousands of followers initially trounced Roman armies, threatening the Empire’s very social and political order, before his eventual defeat led to brutal repercussions and stricter state regulation of gladiators. 

The true cost of combat

Alexander Mariotti explains that gladiatorial combat was “a mix between the pageantry of American wrestling with the brutality of UFC and with weapons added in”. While exceptionally dangerous, gladiators accepted the risk for the lucrative rewards. Dan investigates whether death in the arena was as common as popular culture suggests, or if other threats, like infected wounds, posed a greater danger.

Dan also explores the Colosseum itself with Dr Shushma Malik, learning how this iconic arena, conceived by Emperor Vespasian during a period of chaos, symbolised Rome’s resurgence and Vespasian’s generosity. Its immense scale cemented its status as an imperial symbol, and you’ll hear about the detailed account of its opening games, featuring famous gladiators Priscus and Varus, remains a primary source for understanding these spectacles.

The Colosseum

Image Credit: Shutterstock

A British connection

Dan also heads to the British Museum where he meets Senior Curator Richard Hobbs to find out more about other evidence of gladiatorial combat on the fringes of the Roman empire in Britain, including the Hawkedon helmet (c43-70AD), found in a field in Suffolk. His journey finishes at Richborough Amphitheatre, where he speaks to Roman archaeologist and historian Dr Simon Elliot  about the 12 amphitheatres found to date across Britain. 

As Dan Snow reflects, the gladiator games were more than just entertainment. They served as a powerful tool for spreading Roman culture, assimilating conquered peoples, and pacifying the populace through “bread and circuses.” This raises a fascinating question: who were the real winners of the gladiatorial games? 

Watch Gladiators: History’s Greatest Fighters and uncover the untold stories, the rigorous training, and the complex societal role of these iconic ancient warriors.

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“We believe it is the only certain piece of surviving gladiatorial equipment from Britain,” Dr Richard Hobbs tells History Hit’s Tristan Hughes, who heads behind the scenes at the British Museum for a special look at the exhibition ‘Gladiators of Britain’ which tours in 2025-2026.

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The ‘Hawkedon helmet’ is an extraordinary relic of Roman Britain. It may date from the period immediately following the Roman conquest in the 1st century AD. It is similar to helmets identified in Pompeii, and was probably not made in Britain.

It features a broad neck guard and brow ridge, with rivet holes that would match a visor. The brass was possibly tinned, which means it would have shone almost like gold and silver in the sun.

The helmet and other objects including a gladiator figurine, oil lamp shaped like a gladiator’s helmet and a coin depicting the Colosseum feature in a History Hit film presented by Tristan Hughes.

A bone figurine of a gladiator found in Colchester forms, alongside over 10 identified amphitheatres, evidence of gladiators in Britain. For a time Colchester was the capital of Roman Britain.

A figurine of a gladiator carved from bone.

Image Credit: History Hit

“When Britain became part of the Empire, it brought with it all those things that we associate with Rome, the games being part of that,” explains curator Dr Richard Hobbs.

The figurine depicts a heavily-armed murmillo type gladiator. He wields a shield which itself depicts a gladiator defeating opponents, and either a short sword (gladius) or palm frond.

Another item, a bronze coin (sestertius) provides a fascinating contemporary look at the Colosseum in Rome. It is bigger and thicker than a British 2 pence, and on its face depicts the legendary’s arena’s three levels of arcades and its top level.

Its detail is fine. Not only can you spot small statues on the Colosseum, but also two gladiators in combat in the arena itself.

A coin depicting the Colosseum in Rome.

Image Credit: History Hit

“You can see where all of these little sticks are pointing out,” explains curator Dr Anna Willi. “These are wooden poles that held the awnings that could have been put on on a hot day and they were operated by soldiers from the Roman fleet.”

Why is the Colosseum on a coin? A similar coin was issued when the amphitheatre was inaugurated by emperor Titus in 80 AD. But this coin was issued in 223 AD by Severus Alexander, whose portrait is on the reverse of the coin. He had completed repairs on the Colosseum after it had been struck by lightning and damaged. This coin celebrated his work. He is even inserted as a small figure standing beside the arena.

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In History Hit documentary Rome’s Disaster, Tristan Hughes heads to Germany to investigate some of the worst days in Roman military history which unfolded in 9 AD. At the Varus Battle Museum, named for the humbled Roman commander, Tristan gets hands-on with archaeology from the battle.

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As the Romans fell, the battle sites were looted by their attackers who picked the fields for valuables. Fortunately for us, some Roman artefacts were left behind.

“We have about 5-6,000 Roman finds, 2,000 coins, a lot of bones,” explains museum managing director Stefan Burmeister.

“We have recovered about an area of 50 square kilometres. Most finds come from the core area here in the museum park. We do a lot of excavations and every time we open the soil, it’s like a spring. Things come up.”

Among the human remains is the top of a human skull with a large hole and indications of a mortal sword blow. Their identity, however, remains anonymous – for now.

Rome’s Disaster: Battle of Teutoburg Forest

Image Credit: History Hit

“We have lots of bones. Of course, we know they are all male, very strong stature, between 20 and 40 years of age. We just started a genomic project, and perhaps in one or two years time, we will know more about the ancestry and if they come as Romans or come from the Mediterranean, or if it’s a Germanic warrior.”

Getting closer to the Battle of Teutoburg

Despite lacking concrete proof that the area near the museum was the site of the famous battle, there is good evidence.

“We have lots of coins, 2,000 coins, and they all tell a story and they bring us close to the event,” says Burmeister.

One coin in particular, made from copper and perhaps the value of a glass of wine, displays a unique counter-stamp.

“This is the Varus counter-stamp. It’s a V-A-R. And this was stamped in the time when Varus was commander of the Legion of the Rhine. So this must have been stamped in the years 7 to 9 AD.”

Other, more precious, personal items have also been recovered from the battlefield, including two golden finger rings with high quality, semi-precious stones. Both depict mythological themes. One depicts Silenus, a god of drunkenness, and the other the winged horse Pegasus.

Rome’s Disaster: Battle of Teutoburg Forest

Image Credit: History Hit

These styles of rings were worn by Roman men and women. In modern terms, however, these rings correspond to the smallest female sizes.

“We know that in the baggage train, the soldiers had their families with them, women and children,” explains Burmeister. “And I think with these two rings, we have good evidence of these families accompanying the army.”

Not only were these rings originally crafted for someone originating from thousands of miles away. They highlight how women and children were present at the battle as well as fighting men. The rings also suggest that they got caught up in the carnage, too.

“They were caught, perhaps killed, we don’t know,” says Burmeister. “In the bones we only have men. We know from other historians that 30-40 years later, the Romans bought the last survivors.”

From human remains to gold rings, the archaeology unearthed at Kalkriese is providing a huge range of information about the battle. But perhaps one artefact personifies this massacre more than any other.

A Roman cavalry mask made from iron and coated in silver and depicting a human face, used more for parades than actual battle, is a unique survivor from Teutoburg. We’ll never know what happened to the Roman who wore the mask, but more likely than not he suffered a similar fate to many of his comrades, either killed or captured by the Germans during the later stages of this battle.

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Joining Tristan Hughes on The Ancients, the consultant on Ridley Scott’s Gladiator and Amazon Prime’s Those About to Die (in which he even has a cameo) explains that deaths, when they happened, more often followed later from injuries.

“Combat sports were very violent,” says Mariotti. “And gladiatorial combat is part of that pantheon of sports.”

However the use of weapons made it particularly dangerous. “One of the reasons they don’t wear tunics is because the linen or the wool getting stuck in a wound would kill you [from] an infection.”

Those About to Die

Image Credit: Those About to Die / NBCU

“But what we do find from modern forensics on gladiatorial skeletons is that these guys, majoritively, have medical care, so they have wounds that are then healed. So you’ve not only got a doctor that’s healing you, but you’re also paying for the time that the injured can recover. Because we see from the bones that they actually physically recover even from medical amputations.”

“There are certainly moments where gladiators were expected to, to fight to the death. But I think they’re an absolute rarity.”

Mariotti emphasises that in the arena it took skill not to kill an opponent.

“There were set rules, the training was important because combat, especially with weaponry, instigates ‘fight or flight’.”

“You’ve got the adrenaline pumping, you’ve got the noise, you’re wearing a helmet and this noise is reverberating, the discomfort. And yet they had the ability to stop at the right moment and not kill their opponents, because most of the time they didn’t kill their opponents.”

Mariotti wastes no time debunking other gladiator myths. (Did gladiators fight animals? No, but beast hunts did happen, just as the preserve of hunting specialists.) Find out more when you stream this filmed episode of The Ancients on History Hit.

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